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JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


3  9090  014  530  139 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  i^Jledic 
Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicines 
Tufts  University 
200  Westboro  Road 


r\  J  r-  r»  r* 


WAR   DEPARTMENT,         -         -         ADJUTANT   GENERAL'S  OFFICE. 
(MILITARY   INFORMATION    DIVISION.) 


No.  XXXV. 


Major  General  HENRY  C.  CORBIN, 

ADJUTANT  GENERAL,  U.   S.   ARMY. 

Lieut.  Colonel  W.  A.  SIMPSON,  A.  A.  G. 

IN  CHARGE  OF  DIVISION. 


Target  Practice  and  Recount  Systems  Abroad. 


ARRANGED  BY 

Captain  E.  A.  EDWARDS,  25th  Infantry, 

AND 

Captain  J.  S.  HERRON,  2d  Cavalry. 


APRIL,    1902. 


WASHINGTON : 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE. 

1902. 


3-15 


WAR  DEPARTMENT, 

Adjutant  Geneeal's  Office. 

Document  No.  159. 

M.  I.  D. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


TARGET    PRACTICE. 

Papp. 

I. — Austria- Hungary 7 

II. — Denmark 2o 

III.— France 47 

IV. — Germany .. 77 

v.— Great  Britain 119 

VI.— Russia 138 

VII. —Sweden 139 

VIII.— Switzerland 191 

Japan  (see  Appendix  A) 343 

REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 

I.— Austria-Hungary 207 

II.— Belgium .' 225 

III— China 227 

IV.— Denmark 229 

v.— France 237 

VI.— Germany -- 271 

VII.— Great  Britain ---- 285 

VIII.— Italy 303 

IX. — Japan 311 

X. — Latin  America 313 

XI. — Netherlands 317 

XII.— Norway 319 

XIII.— Persia 321 

XIV.— Portugal 323 

XV.— Russia 325 

XVI.— Spain -  331 

XVIL— Sweden 333 

XVIII.— Switzerland — 335 

XIX.— Turkey 341 

(3) 


TAEGET  PEACTICE  IN  FOEEKN  COUNTRIES. 


(!i) 


TARGET  PRACTICE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Recent  events  have  shown  how  necessary  good  marksman- 
ship is  to  success  in  war.  A  view  of  the  methods  and  course 
of  training  adopted  in  several  European  countries  to  give 
their  troops  the  required  skill  is  shown  in  the  following 
pages. 

Working  for  the  same  ends,  with  almost  identical  tools,  of 
necessity  involves  much  of  sameness  in  methods,  but  diversi- 
ties are  nevertheless  numerous,  and  valuable  hints  for  adop- 
tion into  our  own  service  might  be  gathered  from  a  study  of 
foreign  systems. 


I.-AUSTRIA-  HUNGARY. 

[From  translations  of  official  firing  regulations  furnished  by  Lieut.  Col.  James  B.  Kerr,  Ninth  Cav- 
alry, United  States  Military  Attache  at  Berlin,  compared  and  arranged  by  Capt.  E.  A.  Edwards, 
Twenty-fifth  Infantry.] 


INFANTRY    AND    RIFLE    REGIMENTS. 
GENERAL   RULES. 

The  thorough  individual  training  of  every  soldier  in  the 
fighting  use  of  his  rifle  is  the  object  of  the  prescribed  course 
of  instruction,  which  is  divided  into  preparatory  instruction, 
firing  at  known  distances,  demonstration  firing,  collective 
firing  at  long  ranges,  and  field  or  combat  firing. 

The  captain  is  held  responsible  for  the  instruction  of  his 
men  and  for  the  training  of  his  officers.  Underofficers  and 
skilled  men  are  assistants  in  carrying  on  the  instruction  of 
his  company.  Higher  commanders  are  to  foster  the  fire 
training  and  supervise  the  course  of  instruction  in  the  units 
of  their  command. 

The  preparatory  instruction  consists  in  teaching  the  recruit 
the  construction,  nomenclature,  and  mechanism  of  the  rifle, 
the  theory  of  fire,  principles  of  aiming,  etc.  This  is  accom- 
panied, or  followed,  by  position,  pointing  and  aiming  drills, 


8  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

gallery  practice,  and  drill  in  estimating  distances.  The 
instruction  is  progressive  throughout,  and  each  subject  or 
exercise  is  to  be  understood  before  passing  to  the  next. 

Men  are  expected  to  estimate  distances  up  to  600  paces 
with  reasonable  correctness;  officers,  noncommissioned  offi- 
cers, and  skilled  privates,  distances  up  to  the  limit  of  vision. 
Men  who  show  special  aptitude  in  estimating  distances  are 
trained  in  the  use  of  the  range  finder  and  in  observing  the 
ground  with  field  glasses.  The  details  of  the  course  are  very- 
similar  to  our  own,  units  of  length  being  fixed  in  the  mind 
by  pacing  and  by  frequent  exercise  and  observation  in  all 
conditions  of  light  and  ground,  advantage  being  taken  of 
opportunities  to  note  known  distances  on  drill  or  parade 
grounds,  etc. 

FIRING   AT   KNOWN   DISTANCES. 

The  object  of  this  practice  is  to  enable  the  soldier  to  attain 
as  high  a  degree  of  skill  as  possible  in  the  use  of  the  rifle,  and 
to  prepare  him  for  field  practice. 

It  is  divided  into  preliminary  and  regular  firing,  the  pre- 
liminary firing  being  intended  to  familiarize  the  man  with 
the  principles  of  firing  and  the  peculiarities  of  his  rifle.  The 
school  target  is  used  for  this  practice.  The  men  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  the  first — the  lowest — of  men  in  their  first 
year  of  service,  or  of  longer  service  who  have  not  fulfilled 
the  conditions  of  their  class;  the  second  class  consists  of  the 
men  who,  in  tlie  regular  practice  and  authorized  repetitions, 
have  made  at  least  40  per  cent  of  hits ;  the  third  class  (marks- 
men) are  those  who,  in  the  regular  practice  in  the  second 
class,  have  made  50  per  cent  of  hits. 

Soldiers  are  not  to  engage  in  target  practice  until  they  have 
the  necessary  preparatory  instruction.  Those  who  are  not 
armed  with  rifles  should,  in  their  first  year,  go  through  the 
course  of  the  lowest  class,  and  in  their  second  and  third  years 
should  fire  at  least  IG  shots  (four  of  the  exercises). 

Men  of  more  than  one  year's  service  begin  target  practice 
in  October,  and  continue  during  the  winter  in  favorable 
weather.  For  recruits  such  weather  should  always  be  se- 
lected, and  their  shooting  should  not  be  preceded  by  fatiguing 
drill  or  marching,  or  be  conducted  at  the  same  time  as  that  of 
the  older  soldiers.  In  very  cold  or  hot  weather  no  practice 
should  be  held,  and  in  warm  or  cool  conditions  of  weather 
it  should  not  be  prolonged  beyond  two  hours. 


AUSTRIA-HrNUARY.  9 

As  a  rule  the  range  practice  sliould  be  finished  by  the  end 
of  June,  and  be  followed  by  the  long-range  and  field  firing, 
but  if  required  hj  local  conditions  the  long-range  fire  may 
take  place  before  the  spring  plowing.  In  that  case  young- 
soldiers  should  have  had  previous  training  in  gallery  prac- 
tice in  firing  with  raised  sights,  and  have  gone  through  their 
preliminary  range  firing. 

The  practice  at  known  distances,  instruction  practice,  and 
the  competitive  firings,  are  held  in  ordinary  field  uniform, 
without  knapsack;  the  individual  field  practice,  without  the 
field  utensils;  and  the  long-range  and  field  firing,  in  full 
inarching  order. 

Men  who  fail  to  qualify  in  one  year  repeat  the  same  pro- 
gram in  the  following  year.  Men  in  the  lowest  (first)  class 
who  qualify,  may,  nevertheless,  in  the  discretion  of  the  com- 
pany commander,  be  kept  in  that  class,  if  unsteady  or  unreli- 
able shots,  and  su'ch  men  may  be  ordered  to  repeat  any 
exercise  in  their  preliminary  shooting  if  the  company  com- 
mander think  it  desirable,  and  if  it  be  not  done  with  ammu- 
nition reserved  for  the  regular  practice. 

During  the  target  year  every  soldier  is  required  to  expend 
the  number  of  cartridges  prescribed ;  failure  to  do  this  on 
account  of  detached  service,  sickness,  etc.,  is  noted  on  his 
individual  shooting  record.  At  least  one  exercise  should  be 
fired  on  a  practice  day,  a  second  only  in  case  that  qualifica- 
tion in  the  first  was  made  in  6  shots.  Men  who  qualify  in 
their  class  with  less  than  their  allowance  of  ammunition  will 
use  the  saving  at  the  discretion  of  the-  company  commander, 
first  repeating  exercises  in  the  regular  practice  in  which  the 
conditions  were  not  fulfilled. 

Men  who  on  account  of  defective  vision  are  unable  to  fire 
at  all  distances,  remain  in  the  lowest  class. 


The  school  targets  have  wooden  frames  covered  with  jute 
cloth,  on  which  the  paper  targets  are  pasted ;  the  figure  tar- 
gets and  its  varieties  are  of  pasteboard,  or  of  papier-mache. 

The  school  target  is  of  the  pattern  and  dimensions  shown 
in  the  illustration.  The  center  band  is  white.  The  two  outer 
vertical  bands  are  light  blue  or  gray.  The  oval  outlined 
thereon  represents  the  limit  of  dispersion  of  correctly  aimed 


10 


TARGET  PRACTICE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


shots,  aiming,  at  200  and  300  paces,  at  the  lower  part,  and  at 
400  paces,  at  the  upper  part. 

The  figure  target  and  its  variants  are  shown  in  fig.  2.  The 
figures  are  of  plain  light  blue,  or  colored  to  show  details. 

Section  targets  are  made  up  of  figures  or  variants  of  the 
figure  target  in  light  blue  placed  close  together.  Figure  and 
section  targets  are  used  as  fixed,  moving,  and  disappearing 
targets.     Their  height  when  used  as  fixed  targets  at  medium 


Fig.  1. — School  target. 


'^f/dure  SC^M 


'/z  ri^ure  904^ 


Figure  target. 


ranges  is  0.9  meters,  when  used  as  disappearing  or  moving  tar- 
gets the  height  is  1.2  meters,  the  width  being  in  proportion. 

In  the  practice  at  known  distances,  when  moving  targets 
are  used,  they  are  made  to  move  in  quick  time  for  a  distance 
of  10  paces;  disappearing  targets  are  visible  for  the  period 
required  to  march  10  paces  in  quick  time,  i.  e.,  115  paces  to 
the  minute. 

For  firing  at  long  ranges  larger  groups  are  used,  represent- 
ing lines  and  columns  in  battle  formation,  and  for  field  firing, 
targets  representing  lines  and  columns  of  infantry;  cavalry, 
guns,  caissons,  etc.,  arranged  as  in  action,  are  made  to  move 
or  disappear  so  as  to  show  different  phases  of  the  fight.  To 
ascertain  the  effect  of  fire  at  long  ranges  on  targets  repre- 
senting columns,  only  one  hit  by  each  bullet  is  counted.  This 
is  effected  by  placing  horizontal  lines  at  certain  distances 
from  the  top  edges  of  the  targets,  in  rear  of  the  first  line,  count- 
ing, on  the  rear  targets,  only  the  hits  above  the  lines.     The 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


11 


position  of  the  horizontal  lines  is  calculated  from  the  ti-a- 
jectories,  allowance  being  made  for  the  slope  of  the  ground 
on  which  the  targets  are  located.  For  the  long-range  and 
field  firing  the  figure  and  section  targets  are  1.8  meters  high 
and  of  corresponding  width. 

Some  iargets  for  infantry  field  practice  recently  adopted 
are  described  as  of  coarse-cloth  bands  5  meters  long  and  60 

centimeters  high  on  which  are 
sketched  figures  of  men  lying 
down.  From  three  to  five  figures 
are  on  each  band,  to  show  more 
or  less  dense  lines.  The  bands 
have  pickets  at  the  ends,  which 
are  driven  in  the  ground,  leather 
borders  strengthen  the  edges  of 
the  cloth,  and  props  are  used  to 
support  them  in  case  of  wind. 
Two  or  three  targets  represent  a 
section  of  sharpshooters. 

For  transportation  they  are 
rolled  up,  and  can  be  readily 
carried  by  a  man.  They  are 
easily  and  cheaply  made  in  the 
company,  and  by  combining  all 
the  targets  of  the  battalions,  a 
regiment  may  represent  in  posi- 
tion any  hostile  force  likely  to  be 
encountered  in  war,  train  the  men 
in  scouting,  in  judging  distances, 
developing  hostile  positions,  etc. 
A  gun  rest  for  fire  standing  is  shown  in  fig.  3 ;  for  fire  lying 
down,  sand  bags  are  used. 

The  course  of  range  firing  is  as  follows : 

FIRST   CLASS. 

Preliminary  practice. 


Fig.  3. 


Range. 


Target. 


No.  of 
shots. 


Paces* 
200 
200 
300 
400 


Standing,  with  rest. 

Standing 

Kneeling 

Prone 


School 

do 

do 

do 


*A  pace  is  "o  centimeters  =  29.5  inches. 


12 


TARGET   PRACTICE    IN   FOREIC4N    COUNTRIES. 
Regular  ivactice. 


No. 

Range. 

Po.sition. 

Target. 

No.  of 
shots. 

Conditions. 

5 

Paces* 
200 

200 
300 
400 
500 
200 

200 

Two-thirds  figure 

4  to  8 

4toS 
4  to  8 
4  to  8 
4  to  8 
4  to  8 

11 

3  hits  in  the  last  4  shots 

fi 

fired. 
Do. 

KrieeliiiK,  bayonet  fixed_ 

Do. 

8 

do 

2  hits  in  the  last  4  shots. 

y 

Do. 

10 

do        

Sec,  2  two-thirds  figures  _ 
do 

3  hits  in  the  last  4  shots, 

11 

Standing,  with  bavonet 
fixed. 

firing  at  word  of  com- 
mand. 
3  bits    in   the   6  shots. 

which  are  to  be  fired 
in  30  seconds. 

SECOND   CLASS. 

Preliminary  pvdct  ice. 


200 
300 


standing 
Kneeling 


Prone,  bayonet  fixed . 


Two-thirds  figure 

One-third    figure,    disap- 
pearing. 
Two-thirds  figure,  disap- 
pearing. 


Regular  x^ractice. 


4 

300 

5 

200 

6 

300 

7 

4fK1 

8 

500 

9 

600 

Kneeling 

Prone 

Prone,  bayonet  fixed 

Prone,  with  rest 

Prone 

Kneeling 


Two-thirds  figure 4  to  8 

One-third    figure,    disap-  4  to  8 

pearing. 

Two-thirds  figure,  disap-  4  to  8 

pearing. 

do  „ 4  to  8 

Sec.,  2  two-thirds  figures  _  4  to  8 

Sec,  2  figures 4  to  8 


3  hits  in  the  last  4  shots 
Do. 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


300 
400 
20(1 

300 

400 

500 

300 


Kneeling. 
Standing  . 
Prone 


THIRD  CLASS. 

Preliminary  practice. 


1 

300 
400 

School            .     ._     - 

8 

8 

2 

do                        -       ■    . 

Regular  practice. 

do 

Prone,  with  rest,  bayt 

net  fixed. 
Prone 

Kneeling 


Half  figure 

Two-thirds  figure 

One-fifth     figure,     disap- 

]icaring. 
One-third    figure,    disap- 
pearing. 
Half  figure,  disappearing. 

Sec,  2  two-thirds  figures, 

disappearing. 
Two-thirds  figure, moving. 


4  to  6 

4  to  6 

4  to  8 

4  to  8 

4  to  8 

4  to  8 

4  to  8 

3  hits  in  the  last  4  shots.' 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


*  A  pace  is  75  centimeters  =  29.5  inches. 


Transfers  to  the  second  class  are  made  at  tlie  end  of  the 
target  year  hj  company  commanders.     Transfers  to  the  third 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  13 

class  (marksmen)  are  made  in  each  case  by  the  battalion 
commander  on  the  recommendation  of  the  company  com- 
mander, as  soon  as  the  soldier  has  made  the  required  scores. 
Marksmen  receive  badges  of  distinction,  and  may  be  excused 
from  certain  duties,  such  as  room  orderly,  etc.  For  men 
called  out  for  eight  weeks'  training,  for  furloughed  men,  and 
reservists,  special  courses  of  instruction  are  prescribed.  The 
marksman's  badge  is  a  line  of  red  worsted,  with  red-worsted 
ball  tassels,  worn  on  the  left  sleeve  of  the  tunic. 

RANGES,    MARKING,    SCORING,    ETC. 

Ranges  are  established  at  convenient  points  and  are  arranged 
according  to  prescribed  directions  in  official  manuals  for  the 
different  kinds  of  shooting — known-distance,  long-range,  and 
field  firing.  The  range  practice  is  managed  by  the  company 
commander. 

The  service  of  marking  is  done  by  trained  men  under  the 
direction  of  an  officer,  who  before  the  practice  inspects  all  the 
arrangements,  and  sees  that  everything  is  in  order;  he  regu- 
lates the  details  of  the  service. 

Hits  in  the  oval  on  the  school  target  are  signaled  by  placing 
a  red  disk  over  the  shot  hole;  in  the  center  band  outside  the 
oval  by  a  black  disk ;  in  the  side  bands  of  the  school  target 
and  in  figure  targets  by  a  white  disk.  Ricochets  on  the  school 
targets  are  signaled  by  waving  the  white  disk;  on  figure 
targets  that  are  raised  and  lowered  from  covers,  by  exposing 
the  uncolored  back  of  the  target. 

Intentional  false  marking  is  severely  punished. 

Communication  between  the  targets  and  firing  points  is 
maintained  by  a  system  of  electro-magnetic  bell  signals  for 
showing  when  fire  is  to  begin  or  cease,  calling  for  repeated 
marking  of  shots,  etc.  The  table  of  signals  is  posted  up  at 
firing  points  and  targets.  Where  the  system  is  not  installed 
trumpet  signals  may  be  used.  When  a  hit  is  made  on  a  fixed 
target,  a  danger  flag  (red)  is  immediately  displayed  at  the 
butt  and  the  markers  leave  the  cover,  find,  paste  up,  and 
signal  the  hit,  and  return  to  the  cover,  withdrawing  the  dan- 
ger flag.  When  the  firing  is  to  be  interrupted  the  danger 
flag  is  displayed,  but  men  must  not  leave  the  cover  until  the 
signal  "rest"  is  heard  from  the  firing  stand.  With  targets 
that  may  be  withdrawn  behind  cover,  the  red  disk  is  shown 
when  fire  is  to  be  interrupted;  for  marking,  the  target  is 


14  TARGET    PRACTICE    IX   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

withdrawn,  hole  pasted  up,  and  the  location  of  the  hit  signaled 
when  the  target  is  again  exposed. 

The  service  of  marking  the  target  at  long-range,  and  in 
field  firing,  is  always  under  the  supervision  of  an  officer,  who 
receives  the  necessary  instructions  from  the  leader  of  the 
practice.  The  number  of  hits  is  signaled  by  swinging  a  flag 
to  the  right  for  tens,  to  the  left  for  units.  The  flags  are  also 
used  to  show  whether  the  shots  are  too  high  or  low,  or  going 
to  the  right  or  left. 

AT  THE   FIRING  STANDS. 

To  each  target  five  or  six  men  are  assigned  for  practice 
under  an  instructor,  who  sees  that  each  man  fires  in  the  proper 
position  of  body,  rifle,  etc.  A  noncomn;iissioned  officer  or 
soldier  acts  as  scorer.  Men  are  called  in  succession  to  the 
firing  point  and  deliver  their  fire.  Before  each  shot  the  man 
announces  the  target  he  is  to  fire  at,  the  distance  and  point 
of  aim,  and  after  firing  states,  or  indicates  on  a  small  target, 
where  the  gun  was  held  when  the  shot  was  fired.  This  point 
is  insisted  on,  carelessness  in  this  regard  not  being  permitted ; 
if  the  soldier  does  not  know  Avhere  the  gun  was  held  at  the 
moment  of  firing,  he  must  so  state. 

When  the  shot  has  been  signaled  the  soldier  calls  out  the 
result  and  it  is  recorded  by  the  scorer,  who  notes  the  hit  as 
correct  or  incorrect  with  regard  to  the  point  of  aim.  When 
the  soldier  has  gained  skill  in  shooting  he  may  fire  an  entire 
score  of  the  regular  practice  without  interruption,  announc- 
ing the  result  after  each  shot. 

When  firing  at  moving  and  disappearing  targets,  the  gun 
is  not  raised  until  the  target  appears. 

RECORDS,  REPORTS,  ETC. 

A  complete  record  of  every  shot  fired  at  known  distances, 
and  in  the  individual  field  firing  by  each  officer,  noncommis- 
sioned officer  and  soldier  during  the  target  year  is  kept  on 
separate  shot  sheets  for  each  person.  It  is  closed  at  the  end 
of  the  target  year  and  signed  by  the  company  commander. 
These  sheets  go  to  make  up  a  man's  record,  and  if  the  man 
be  transferred,  the  sheet  for  the  last  complete  year  is  sent 
with  his  descriptive  list  to  his  new  company. 

In  the  school  target  only  hits  in  the  center  band  are 
counted;  they  are  marked  1,  if  within  the  oval  1  +  .  Shots 
that  fail  to  hit  the  target  or  hit  in  the  outer  bands  are  counted 


AUSTRIA-HUXGARY.  15 

misses  and  marked  0,  but  those  shots  that  fall  in  the  outer 
bands  are  marked  0+. 

All  hits  in  the  figure  targets  are  counted  and  marked  1. 
Misses  are  marked  by  a  cipher. 

With  disappearing  and  moving  targets,  shots  prescribed 
but  not  fired  are  counted  as  misses. 

A  record  is  made  at  the  end  of  each  practice  of  the  ammu- 
nition expended.  Minutes  are  also  made  and  record  kept  of 
the  kind  and  effect  of  firing  at  long  range,  and  of  the  regular 
practice  of  the  company  in  field  firing  for  each  subdivision. 
Similar  minutes  are  made  and  kept  by  commanders  of  bat- 
talions and  regiments.  Tke  field  and  long-range  fire  is  exe- 
cuted by  units  at  approximately  the  war  strength. 

AMMUNITION. 

The  yearly  allowance  of  ammunition  for  target  practice  is : 

1.  For  every  officer,  cadet  officer,  and  sergeant  major  of 
infantry  and  rifle  battalions,  60  cartridges. 

2.  For  every  soldier  of  the  normal  peace  strength,  includ- 
ing one-year  volunteers,  150  cartridges. 

Of  the  150  cartridges  allowed  there  are  used  for  range  firing, 
80  for  men  of  the  first  class,  and  70  for  men  of  the  second  and 
third  classes. 

For  field-firing  practice  of  men  of  the  first  class,  70,  and  for 
the  men  of  the  second  and  third  classes,  80  cartridges. 

In  the  field  firing,  men  of  the  first  class  fire  10  cartridges 
in  the  individual  preparatory  exercises,  those  of  the  second 
and  third  classes,  20  cartridges,  and  all  classes  fire  25  car- 
tridges in  skirmish  line  and  platoon  fire,  25  in  the  regular 
field  firing,  and  10  cartridges  in  the  long-range  firing. 

AVhen  individual  preparatory  field  practice  can  be  carried 
out  only  in  part,  or  not  at  all,  the  ammunition  saved  will  l;)e 
expended  in  repeating  the  fire  of  skirmishers  and  platoons 
and  in  extra  range  practice. 

3.  For  every  man  called  out  for  a  training  course  of  eight 
weeks,  60  cartridges.  Of  these  40  are  used  for  range  prac- 
tice and  20  for  field  firing. 

4.  For  officers,  cadet  officers,  furloughed  men,  and  reserv- 
ists, 15  cartridges. 

Of  these  the  officers  and  cadet  officers  use  15  in  range  firing, 
the  furloughed  men  and  reservists,  5  for  range  practice  and 
10  for  field  practice.    If  there  be  no  suitable  grounds  for  field 


16  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

firing,  the  men  called  out  for  eight  weeks,  furloughers  and 
reservists,  use  the  ammunition  in  range  practice. 

For  instruction  practice,  trial  shots  on  the  range,  and  for 
testing  rifles,  ammunition  saved  from  other  firing  is  to  be 
used. 

DEMONSTRATION   FIRING. 

This  firing  is  intended  to  illustrate  the  accuracy  of  the  rifle, 
and  the  effect  of  fire  under  different  conditions.  The  firing 
is  done  by  good  shots  in  the  presence  of  all  the  members  of 
the  company,  and  takes  place  as  early  as  possible  during  the 
target-practice  season. 

The  extent  of  the  practice  depends  on  the  amount  of  saved 
ammunition  that  can  be  devoted  to  it. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  exercises :  To  show  the  cen- 
ter of  impact  of  different  rifles;  the  effect  on  the  fire  of 
having  the  bayonet  fixed;  the  trajectory  of  the  bullet;  the 
accuracy  of  the  rifle  at  200,  300,  400,  and  500  paces;  firing 
from  cover  at  targets  also  concealed  behind  cover,  and  night 
firing,  or  firing  in  a  heavy  fog. 

The  simpler  exercises  are  commanded  by  the  company 
commander;  those  requiring  considerable  care  and  prepara- 
tion are  supervised  by  the  battalion  commander.  Some  may 
be  carried  on  during  the  field  practice  for  which  the  ground 
offers  facilities  not  available  on  ordinary  ranges. 

LONG-RANGE   FIRING. 

The  object  of  this  practice  is  to  show  the  effect  of  volley 
firing  and  to  illustrate  its  tactical  importance,  and  the  best 
method  of  utilizing  it  in  action.  Appropriate  targets,  repre- 
senting lines  and  columns  of  troops,  are  used.  The  firing  is 
participated  in  by  all  classes  in  the  company. 

Two  positions  are  taken  exceeding  1,200  paces,  and  five 
volleys  fired  from  each  position,  the  first  firing  being  from 
the  shorter  distance.  After  the  firing  at  each  distance  the 
result  of  the  fire  is  ascertained  and  signaled  by  the  marking 
party.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  exercise  the  company  is 
marched  to  the  targets  and  the  leader  gives  a  lecture  on  the 
subject  of  the  firing. 

FIELD  OR   COMBAT   FIRING. 

This  firing  is  esteemed  the  most  important  part  of  the 
course,  being  intended  for  the  instruction  of  leaders  of  all 


austria-hun(;arv.  17 

grades,  as  well  as  the  individual  soldier.  It  takes  place  after 
the  range  practice,  and  if  possible  after  the  long-range  firing. 
All  classes  of  firers  take  part. 

The  exercises  are  based  on  simple  offensive  tactical  suppo- 
sitions. The  total  front  of  the  targets  must  not  be  greater 
than  the  front  of  the  firing  detachment  in  extended,  order, 
and  the  figure  targets  used  are  of  natural  size. 

The  leader  determines  what  targets  are  to  be  used,  in  what 
order,  how  long  visible,  and  the  signals  on  which  they  are  to 
appear  or  disappear.  The  exercise  should  be  arranged  to 
permit  of  all  kinds  of  fire.  At  distances  less  than  800  paces, 
section  targets  0.9  meter  high  must  be  used,  and  at  less  than 
600  paces  no  section  targets  are  shown. 

At  the  end  of  the  exercise  the  men  are  marched  to  the  tar- 
gets and  the  leader  gives  a  short  dissertation  on  the  firing. 

The  field  firing  is  divided  into  preparatory  and  regular 
practice  for  individual  soldiers,  groups,  and  platoons. 

The  individual  preparatory  practice  may  be  held,  if  neces- 
sary, on  the  ordinary  ranges,  the  man  at  first  using  dummy 
cartridges  and  afterwards  ball  cartridges.  The  course  is 
arranged  by  the  instructor ;  for  example,  the  man  is  shown  sud- 
denly a  target  which  remains  visible  during  the  time  neces- 
sary to  march  15  paces  in  quick  time  (about  eight  seconds). 
The  target  may,  at  600  paces,  be  a  section  target  of  two  whole 
figures,  at  300  paces  a  half  figure,  or  at  400  paces  a  two- 
third  figure.  Within  the  time  during  which  the  target  is 
visible  the  man  must  estimate  the  distance,  adjust  his  sight, 
aim,  and  fire.    The  shots  are  delivered  from  the  prone  position. 

The  preparatory  practice  of  groups  and  platoons  is  carried 
on  similarly.  During  the  practice  the  leaders  are  not  to  be 
interfered  with,  comment  or  criticism  being  reserved  till  the 
end  of  the  exercise.  In  the  individual  exercise,  the  result  of 
each  shot  is  ascertained,  and  if  there  be  time  in  the  group  and 
platoon  practice,  the  hits  at  each  range,  and  for  the  different 
kinds  of  fire,  should  be  marked. 

REGULAR   PRACTICE. 

This  takes  place,  as  a  rule,  in  companies  or  battalions  of 
approximately  war  strength.  The  leader  is  the  battalion  or 
regimental  commander;  higher  commanders  do  not  interfere 
with  the  course  of  the  exercise,  unless  gross  faults  are  observed, 
and  comment  is  not  made  until  the  exercise  is  over. 


18  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  closest  resemblance  to  war  conditions  is  sought,  reen- 
forcements  and  reserves  may  be  represented  by  other  troops 
than  those  going  through  the  exercise ;  these  may  use  blank 
cartridges  to  simulate  the  assumed  conditions.  The  com- 
mander and  men  of  the  detachment  going  through  the  exer- 
cise do  not  know  the  distances,  or  the  targets  to  be  shown, 
and  previous  discussion  of  the  practice  is  not  permitted. 

Fire  must  not  be  opened  until  within  the  zone  of  medium- 
range  infantry  fire,  1,000-500  paces,  and  is  not  delivered  at 
distances  less  than  300  paces.  Markers  should  not  belong  to 
the  company  practicing,  and  the  results  of  fire  are  not  ascer- 
tained until  the  close  of  the  practice.  While  the  company  is 
going  through  the  field  practice,  the  system  of  ammunition 
supply  in  battle  is  also  rehearsed. 

FIRING   PRIZES. 

No  general  competitions  are  held  for  prizes,  but  company, 
squadron,  and  battery  commanders  should,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, encourage  emulation  in  firing  among  their  men  of  all 
practice  classes  who  show  skill  in  shooting. 

Money  prizes  are  provided  from  an  allowance  made  annually 
as  follows : 

Infantry  companies :  Florins. 

Minimum  strength 8 

Normal  strength 9 

Maximum  strength 12 

Rifle  companies  (jager) 12 

Engineer  and  pioneer  companies 8 

Railroad  and  telegrajih  companies 6 

Cavalry  squadrons  .  6 

Batteries  of  light,  heavy,  horse,  and  mountain  ai'tillery 9 

Companies  of  fortress  ai'tillery,  for  battery  practice 9 

Companies  of  fortress  artillery,  for  rifle  practice 4 

Allowances  are  also  given  to  depot  troops,  to  landwehr 
called  out  for  eight  weeks'  training,  to  reservists,  and  to  fur- 
loughed  men. 

The  allowances  are  distributed  in  January  of  each  year. 
Three  prizes  of  20  kreutzers  for  each  exercise  are  given  to  the 
men  of  the  lowest  class  in  the  company  in  their  first  year  of 
service  who  make  the  best  scores  in  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  preparatory  exercises  of  that  class.  Scores  made  in 
repetitions  of  those  exercises  are  not  considered. 

Half  of  the  amount  remaining  is  used  for  prizes  of  10  and 
20  kreutzers  to  men  of  all  classes  for  special  progress  made. 


AUSTKIA-HUN(iAKY. 


19 


and  skill  shown  in  target  practice.  These  sums  are  handed 
to  the  men  on  the  range  during  the  firing  season. 

The  rest  of  the  money  is  distributed  at  the  end  of  the  target 
practice  to  the  men  of  all  classes  who  have  the  largest  per- 
centage of  hits  in  their  regular  practice  and  authorized 
repetitions.  For  the  first  and  second  classes  one  prize  only  is 
given,  of  not  less  than  half  a  gulden  (50  kreutzers)  for  men  of 
the  first  class ;  the  second  class  prize  may  be  a  little  more, 
and  the  rest  is  divided  in  higher  sums  for  prizes  for  the  best 
shots  in  the  company. 

The  award  of  prizes  is  noted  on  the  shot  sheets  of  the 
winners, 

REVOLVER   PRACTICE. 

This  practice  is  nearly  the  same  for  all  ofl&cers  and  men  of 
infantry  and  technical  troops,  and  for  cavalry  and  train  troops, 
armed  with  that  weapon.  The  annual  allowance  for  infantry 
and  technical  troops  is  20  rounds,  for  cavalry  and  troops  of 
the  train  30  rounds. 

The  targets  used  are  the  school  and  figure  targets,  and  the 
distances  from  15  to  50  paces.  No  practice  is  held  at  distances 
greater  than  50  paces. 

The  following  is  the  program  for  practice  of  infantry  and 
technical  troops: 


No.  of 
practice. 

Distance. 

Position. 

Target. 

Remarks. 

1 

Paces. 
25 
50 
25 
50 

Standing,  on  foot 

..     do  _    _.  _. 

School ...     -. 

2 

-do 

Do. 

3 

do  __    

Figure 

.do 

Do. 

4 

do 

Do. 

Noncommissioned  officers  who  have  shown  skill  in  previous 
years  may  omit  Nos.  1  and  2,  and  ammunition  so  saved  may 
be  used  in  other  firing.  When  mounted,  as  are  regimental 
and  battalion  buglers  of  rifle  troops,  exercises  Nos.  1  and  2 
should  be  fired  from  horseback.  Advancing  on  a  line  parallel 
to  the  target  and  15  paces  from  it,  with  revolver  raised,  the 
rider  halts  opposite  the  target,  turns  his  body  to  the  right, 
aims,  and  fires. 

CAVALRY  AND  TRAIN  TROOPS. 

In  addition  to  the  firing  on  foot,  the  cavalry  has  two  exer- 
cises firing  from  horseback,  one  at  a  halt,  and  one  while  in 


30  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

motion  riding  past  the  target,  at  15  paces.  The  train  troops 
fire  from  horseback  at  a  halt,  approaching  the  firing  stand 
first  at  a  walk,  and  then  at  a  gallop. 

Officers  and  cadet  officers  of  all  troops  practice  separately. 

CAVALRY. 

GENERAL  RULES. 

The  method  and  course  of  instruction  is  the  same  as  for 
infantry,  except  that  demonstration  firing  is  omitted.  The 
men  are  classed  as  in  infantry,  and  similar  targets  are  used 
for  the  known-distance,  long-range,  and  field  firing.  When 
possible  the  infantry  ranges  are  used  and  the  service  of  mark- 
ing, signaling,  scoring,  and  recording  is  carried  on  as  pre- 
scribed for  infantry. 

No  soldier  is  to  fire  with  ball  cartridges  on  the  range  until 
he  has  gone  through  the  course  of  preparatory  instruction. 
The  practice  for  recruits  should  be  during  the  months  of 
April,  May,  and  June,  and  only  in  favorable  weather ;  trained 
soldiers  should  frequently  practice  in  bad  weather. 

The  time  for  long-range  and  field  firing  is  fixed  by  regi- 
mental commanders,  unless  otherwise  specially  ordered,  as 
might  be  the  case  in  large  garrisons.  The  long-range  firing 
and  the  individual  preparatory  field  firing  are  confined  to  men 
in  their  first  year  of  service,  and  to  such  men  of  higher  classes 
as  may  have  missed  the  practice  in  their  first  year. 

The  practice  at  known  distances  is  in  ordinary  drill  uniform, 
the  long-range  and  field  practice  in  full  field  equipment. 

ALLOWANCE   OF   AMMUNITION. 

The  yearly  allowance  of  carbine  ammunition  for  target 
practice  is  as  follows :  For  every  officer  and  cadet  officer,  30 
rounds;  for  every  soldier  of  the  authorized  strength  armed 
with  the  carbine,  50  rounds;  and  for  every  noncommis- 
sioned ofiBcer  armed  with  a  revolver,  30  rounds  of  revolver 
ammunition. 

Of  the  50  rounds  of  carbine  ammunition,  35  rounds  per  man 
are  reserved  for  range  firing;  and  from  the  total  allowance 
of  the  squadron,  10  rounds  per  man  are  allotted  for  each  man 
required  to  go  through  the  individual  preparatory  field  firing, 
and  9  rounds  per  man  for  those  who  are  to  take  part  in  the 
long-range  firing. 


ArsTKlA-HrN(iARY.  21 


FIRIXt;    AT    KNOWX    DISTANCES. 


The  course  for  all  classes  consists  of  seven  scores  of  five 
shots  each,  of  which  two  are  preliminary,  and  five  regular 
practice.  The  ranges  are  from  200  to  GOO  paces,  and  the 
difficulties  are  increased  for  the  higher  classes  by  the  use  of 
smaller  targets  for  the  same  ranges,  or  by  disappearing  or 
moving  targets  visible  only  for  a  limited  period,  during  which 
the  shots  must  be  delivered. 


LONG-DISTANCE   FIRING. 


For  long-distance  firing  the  men  of  each  squadron  taking 
part  are  formed  in  a  detachment.  Three  positions,  at  dis- 
tances greater  than  1,000  paces,  are  taken,  if  possible  one  to 
be  from  1,800  to  2,400  paces.  At  each  position  three  volleys 
are  fired,  and  the  results  ascertained  for  each  range. 

Firing  commences  at  the  longest  range.  At  the  end  of  the 
firing  the  detachment  is  marched  to  the  targets  and  the  leader 
gives  cin  instructive  talk  on  the  practice. 

FIELD   FIRING. 

The  field  firing  is  conducted  as  in  the  infantry,  except  that 
section  targets  1.8  meters  high  are  used  at  distances  of  not 
less  than  -iOO  paces. 

The  preparatory  practice  is  managed  by  the  squadron  com- 
mander. An  officer  or  noncommissioned  officer  commands 
the  men,  who  are  combined  in  one  or  two  platoons.  Non- 
commissioned officers  promoted  within  the  year  act  as  grou^j 
leaders.  While  the  conditions  of  actual  service  are  to  be 
copied  as  far  as  possible,  the  exercise  is  to  be  interrupted 
as  often  as  the  leader  deems  proper  for  the  instruction  of 
those  taking  part,  and  to  ascertain  the  efi^ect  of  the  firing. 
Of  the  10  cartridges  allowed  for  this  practice,  4  are  used 
for  volley  firing  and  6  for  individual  firing.  The  practice 
should  be  held  in  good  weather  and  be  finished  in  one  day. 

REGULAR   PRACTICE. 

This,  as  a  rule,  is  carried  on  in  the  ordinary  formation  of 
the  squadron.  The  leader  is  the  divisional  commander.  In 
order  to  show  the  action  of  mounted  troops  in  a  fight,  a 
mounted  detachment  from  another  squadron  may  take  part 
in  the  exercise. 


22  TARGET   PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  j)roblem  is  made  known  to  those  engaged  only  just 
before  it  is  to  take  place;  distances,  targets,  etc.,  depending 
on  the  conditions  of  the  fight.  As  with  cavalry  the  main 
object  is  to  delay  the  advance  of  an  enemy,  special  attention 
is  to  be  given  to  firing  at  medium  ranges.  The  most  impor- 
tant feature  is  to  represent  the  advance  of  an  enemy  by  means 
of  targets.  For  this  purpose  disappearing  and  moving  tar- 
gets are  used,  the  latter  being  carried  on  sleds ;  if  necessary, 
targets  showing  the  enemy  in  position  further  advanced  may 
be  kept  in  readiness  on  the  ground,  and  set  up  during  a  pause 
ordered  for  the  purpose,  while  at  the  same  time  more  distant 
targets — lines  and  columns- — may  be  removed.  The  exercise 
may  also  be  made  to  represent  an  offensive  action. 

This  practice  may  be  held  in  any  kind  of  weather  and 
should  be  preceded  by  a  march. 

TARGET    PRACTICE    FOR    OFFICERS. 

Officers  and  cadet  officers,  of  infantry  and  cavalry,  practice 
with  the  rifle  or  carbine,  and  revolver,  separate  from  the  men, 
under  the  direction  of  a  field  officer  or  captain.  The  practice 
is  generally  similar  to  that  of  the  men,  but  no  classification 
is  made.  To  maintain  interest  in  shooting,  practices  or  com- 
petitions are  held  among  them. 

TECHNICAL   TROOPS. 

For  the  technical  troops,  practicing  with  the  short  rifle, 
the  course  of  instruction,  targets,  classification,  and  records 
are  the  same  as  for  infantry. 

ALLOWANCE   OF  AMMUNITION. 

For  officers,  cadet  officers,  and  sergeants  major,  60  rounds ; 
for  each  man  of  the  authorized  strength,  equipped  with  the 
short  rifle,  including  one-year  volunteers,  85  rounds. 

Of  these  there  are  used  in  range  firing  by  men  of  the  first 
class,  45;  by  the  second  class,  40;  and  by  the  third  class,  35 
rounds.  Fifteen  rounds  are  expended  in  preparatory  field 
firing,  10  rounds  in  long-range  firing,  and  the  remainder  for 
regular  field. firing. 

Men  called  out  for  eight  weeks'  training  have  a  smaller 
allowance  and  have  special  programs  of  firing. 


AUSTRIA-HUN(iARY.  23 


RANGE   FIRING 


The  practice  is  in  scores  of  5  shots  each,  as  follows :  For  the 
first  class,  9 ;  second  class,  8 ;  third  class,  7,  at  distances  from 
200  to  600  paces,  the  conditions  being  more  difficult  for  the 
higher  classes. 

Two  prizes  of  20  kreutzers  for  each  of  the  exercises  1  and  2 
of  the  first  class  are  given  to  men  of  that  class,  the  remainder 
is  distributed  as  in  the  infantry. 

TRAIN    TROOPS. 

The  train  troops  practice  with  the  carbine.  For  every 
officer,  cadet  officer,  and  every  man  of  the  authorized  strength, 
including  one-year  volunteers,  equipped  with  the  carbine,  25 
rounds  are  allowed  annually. 

The  practice  of  the  several  classes  is  in  five  scores  of  five 
shots  each  at  distances  from  200  to  600  paces,  the  principle 
of  increasing  difficulties  for  better  shots  being  observed. 

A  prize  of  10  kreutzers  for  each  of  the  exercises  1  and  2  of 
the  first  class  is  given,  one-half  of  the  remainder  is  given,  in 
prizes  of  10  kreutzers  each,  to  men  of  all  classes. for  special 
progress,  and  the  rest  is  divided  in  larger  amounts  among  the 
best  shots  of  the  company. 


IT.-DENMARK. 


[Kepoited  by  Lieut.  (Jol.  William  K.  Livenuore,  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States  Military  Attache, 

Copenhagen  and  Stooklioliii.l 


INFANTRY. 


The  preparatory  drills  should  be  conij)leted  before  the  firing 
commences.  They  should  not  be  practiced  more  than  half 
an  hour  at  a  time,  but  may  be  practiced  several  times  each 
day.  To  keep  the  men  in  constant  practice,  it  is  advisable  to 
give  them  five  or  ten  minutes  of  these  d'rills  whenever  there 
is  an  opportunity  throughout  the  course  of  instruction. 

Sighting. — A  rifle  is  laid  on  an  aiming  stand  at  such  a 
height  that  the  man  who  is  aiming  can  sit  down. 

The  teacher  first  directs  the  sight  against  a  sharply  defined 
point  on  the  target,  and  then  makes  the  men  look  at  the  line 
of  sight,  one  after  another,  with  the  right  eye,  while  they 
close  the  left  eye. 

The  sights  are  then  directed  against  another  point  on  or  off 
the  target,  and  the  men  again  look  one  by  one,  and  tell  the 
teacher  again  at  which  point  it  is  directed.  This  drill  is 
repeated  several  times. 

The  teacher  finally  makes  the  men  direct  the  aim  against  a 
given  point. 

Aiming. — The  men  are  next  instructed  in  aiming  in  dif- 
ferent positions,  standing,  kneeling,  lying,  behind  trees, 
rocks,  etc. 

To  test  the  aiming  the  mirror  may  be  used,  or  the  men  may 
be  told  to  point  at  the  eye  of  the  instructor  or  of  other  men. 
In  this  case,  the  man  against  whom  the  gun  is  directed  must 
satisfy  himself  that  the  gun  is  unloaded. 

As  preparation  for  firing  at  a  movable  target,  the  men  are 
taught  to  follow  a  horizontal  line  with  the  aim  with  a  slow 
and  uniform  motion  to  the  right  or  left,  then  to  move  the 
aim  past  a  slowly  moving  object  until  the  proper  deviation 
has  been  reached,  and  then  follow  it  for  a  while  at  this  dis- 
tance. 

(25) 


26  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Gymnastic  Exercises. — In  order  to  strengthen  the  muscles 
brought  into  play  in  shooting,  the  men  are  practiced  in  gym- 
nastic exercises  with  the  rifle,  viz : 

1.  The  man  takes  in  succession  the  positions  of  ready,  aim, 
ready,  etc.,  holding  the  rifle  for  a  few  seconds  in  each  position. 

2.  He  takes  the  position  of  aiming,  standing;  holds  the 
piece  with  the  left  hand  while  the  right  hand  with  the  arm 
extended  describes  as  large  a  circle  as  possible,  and  again 
grasps  the  rifle. 

3.  He  takes  the  position  of  aiming  high,  and  then  drops 
the  left  hand,  holding  the  rifle  in  the  right  pressing  the  butt 
against  the  shoulder,  and  gradually  letting  the  rifle  fall  to 
the  horizontal  position,  etc. 

4.  He  takes  the  position  of  aim;  drops  the  left  hand,  turns 
the  rifle  with  the  right  until  the  muzzle  is  vertical,  extends 
the  right  arm  horizontally  forward,  contracts  it,  etc. 

5.  In  exercises  in  squads  the  men  are  taught  to  maintain 
the  position  of  aim  for  two  minutes. 

These,  and  similar  exercises,  are  repeated  when  kneeling, 
and  in  all  the  positions  of  aiming. 

Pulling  the  Trigger. — The  men  are  then  taught  to  pull 
the  trigger  without  disturlung  the  aim,  both  against  a  fixed 
target,  and  against  all  kinds  of  objects  moving  forward,  back- 
ward, and  in  all  directions,  and  at  all  distances. 

Rapid  Fire  with  Dummies. — They  are  then  practiced  with 
dummy  cartridges  in  loading  and  firing  rapidly  under  all 
circumstances. 

Blank  Cartridges. — They  fire  blank  cartridges  to  become 
accustomed  to  the  report. 

Practice  for  Field  Shooting. — Finally,  as  a  preparation 
for  field  shooting,  they  are  practiced  with  blank  or  dummy 
cartridges  in  the  motions  of  firing  against  targets  made  to 
appear  and  disappear  unexpectedly  and  at  unknown  distances, 
moving  in  all  directions,  etc.  The  man  must  first  estimate 
the  distance,  then  he  decides  whether  the  object  is  near 
enough  for  him  to  fire  at  it.  In  the  latter  case  he  must 
specify  the  elevation,  deviation,  etc.,  fix  his  sights,  decide 
what  point  to  aim  at,  and  commence  firing.  Sometimes  two 
or  more  targets  are  made  to  appear  at  once,  and  then  he  must 
decide  which  to  fire  at. 

In  some  cases  he  may  be  allowed  to  choose  his  moment  for 
firing  wiien  he  thinks  that  by  waiting  he  will  have  a  better 


DENMARK. 


27 


chance  of  hitting.  At  tirst  he  is  allowed  plenty  of  time  to 
consider  what  should  be  done,  but  in  the  final  exercises 
rapidity  should  be  taken  into  consideration  as  well  as  accuracy. 
He  is  then  practiced  in  all  these  exercises  while  he  himself 
is  in  movement  when  the  targets  appear. 

Then  the  men  are  practiced  in  squads,  platoons,  com- 
panies, etc. 

GALLERY   PRACTICE. 

Gallery  practice  begins  after  the  recruits  have  received  the 
elementary  instruction  in  aiming  and  pulling  the  trigger,  and 
firing  blank  cartridges. 

It  is  conducted  with  reduced  charges  and  reduced  targets, 
at  very  short  range  either  indoors  or  in  the  open  air,  as 
explained  in  the  following  tables : 


Dis- 

tauce. 

Meters. 

1 

10 

2 

10 

3 

10 

i 

10 

5 

10 

6 

10 

7 

10 

Target. 


Riiifl  taiget- 


do 

__-do  


Lyiug,  with  support 


do 

Lying,  without  sup- 
port. 


.do Kneeling,  with  sup- 
port. 

do [  Standing,    without 

I       support. 

Full-length  figure__ do 

do Kneeling,    without 

j       support. 


Special  shooting. 


Num- 
ber of 
shots. 


Without  knap- 
sacks; required 
before  firing 
with  full 
charges. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

With  knapsacks 
do 


Pointof  aim,  cen- 
ter of  bull's- 
eye. 


Do. 

Man  tries  to  hit 

the  bull's-eye, 

or  widest  part 

of  the  figure. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Dc. 


Apjwrtionnient  of  exercises. 


Classification. 

Carry  out 

exercises 

No.— 

Number  of 
cartridges 
per  man. 

Keniarks. 

1-7 

2-7 
0,7 

1-7 
1-7 
1-7 

.34 
30 
H 

30 
34 
34 

Special  shooting  with  gallery  ammunition 

Men  in  continued  service 

Men  called  in  for  continuous 
practice. 

is  not  obligatory,  but  may  be  pi-acticed  by  or 
der  of  the  company  commander,  etc. 

Sliooting  Nos.  6  and  7  with  gallery  ammu- 
nition, for  men  called  in  for  continuous  prac- 

Second lieutenants'  school___ 

Shooting  for  oflicers,  young 

officers,  and  underofficers, 

on    temporary   duty   with 

recruit  battalions. 

tice,  are  not  obligatory  liut  may  be  practiced 
by  order  of  the  company  commander. 

The  targets  for  gallery  practice  are,  first,  the  ring  target, 
30  centimeters  square  with  a  black  bull's-eye  of  6-centimeter 


28  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

diameter,  and  a  black  ring  of  18-centimeter  inner  and  24- 
centimeter  onter  diameter;  and  second,  a  figure  target,  30 
centimeters  square  witli  a  black  figure — a  man  17  centimeters 
high  and  5  centimeters  wide. 

ESTIMATING   AND   MEASURING   DISTANCES. 

Estimating. — Officers  and  men  should  have  practice  in 
estimating  distances  in  all  positions,  standing,  kneeling, 
lying,  etc. 

At  first  the  men  are  taught  to  judge  with  the  eye  distances 
of  100,  200,  and  400  meters,  and  the  size  of  a  man  at  these 
distances.  This  preparatory  practice  is  repeated  also  during 
the  later  exercises.  They  are  made  in  all  kinds  of  terrain 
and  under  all  possible  circumstances,  especially  on  ground 
with  which  the  men  are  not  familiar ;  at  first  slowly  and  then 
in  a  time  not  to  exceed  10  seconds. 

Corporals,  undercorporals,  and  men  should  be  able  to  esti- 
mate distances  not  over  600  meters,  and  have  some  practice 
with  greater  distances.  There  should  be  at  least  50  problems 
in  estimating  distances  at  the  recruit  school,  80  in  the  can- 
didates' school,  and  60  for  the  men  in  continuous  service. 

Officers  and  permanent  underofficers  should  acquire  facility 
in  estimating  distances  up  to  1,200  meters  and  have  some 
practice  in  estimating  greater  distances. 

All  these  exercises  are  repeated  after  the  regular  course  of 
instruction  has  ceased. 

In  the  second  lieutenants'  school  there  are  at  least  100  prob- 
lems and  in  the  sergeants'  school  80. 

Measuring. — Distances  are  measured  by  means  of  a  chart, 
by  pacing,  by  distance  measurers,  and  by  observation  of  the 
effect  of  shooting. 

Exercises  in  estimating  distances  by  help  of  a  chart  are 
practiced  by  officers,  underofficers,  and  pupils  in  the  second 
lieutenants'  school  in  connection  with  other  methods. 

Exercises  in  pacing  are  practiced  by  officers  and  men. 

Use  of  the  distance  measurer  is  i3racticed  by  officers,  per- 
manent underofficers,  pupils  in  second  lieutenants'  school, 
and  in  the  sergeants'  school,  in  connection  with  estimating 
distances  with  the  eye. 

In  shooting,  attention  is  paid  to  the  falling  of  the  shots, 
and  to  the  effect  upon  the  target. 


DENMARK. 


29 


TEST   OF   PROFICIENCY, 


Regimental  officers  report  the  proficiency  of  the  most  skill- 
ful of  the  corporals,  undercorporals,  and  men. 

The  minister  of  war  issues  special  orders  every  year  a>)Out 
tests,  usually  in  August,  for  the  ability  of  the  officers  and 
permanent  underofficers  in  estimating  distances. 

TARGETS. 

The  targets  used  are  shown  in  the  figures  below : 


1. 

:::::::i±:  ==i|:: 


/88' 


(88* 


18  8' 


^        (OOC'"'> 


th 


10. 


'<    50    / 


ll 


'  55' 


la. 


:<  50"^- 


30 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


280  c"^- 


26JOI. 


15. 


H 

<       155  o^-      ^ 


yi^-^ 


<  660  c^- 

FIRING   WITH   LOADED   AMMUNITION. 


In  all  the  practice  with  loaded  ammunition,  as  soon  as  a 
man  has  fired  his  rifle  he  calls  out  where  he  thinks  the  shot 
went.     The  following  table  gives  a  synopsis  of  the  practice : 
Apportiomnent  of  exercises,  range  and  field. 


Nm. 

Dis- 
tance in 
meters. 

Target. 

Position. 

Number  of  shots. 

Sight. 

Remarks. 

No. 

Description. 

Blank. 

Loaded. 

1 

100 
250" 

2o6" 

100 

150 
200 
200 
200 

300' 
250 

100 
200 
300 

400 
500 

200 

1 

2 
3 

4 

4 
4 

1 

6 

7 
8 
7 
7 
8 
7 
8 

5 
7 

8 

7 
13 

Range-finding  tar- 
get. 

Ring  target 

do 

2 

4 

4 
4 
4 

4 
4 
4 

4 
6 
5 
5 
5 
5 
10 
5 

5 

8 
5 

5 
5 

6 

250 

250 
250 
250 

250 
2.50 
2.50 

250 
250 
250 
250 
250 
250 
250 
250 

250 
250 
400' 

400 
400 

250 

Without  packs ; 
aim  taken  at 
bull's-eye. 

Without  packs. 

V 

s 

-       do 

Do. 

4 

5 

Full-length  figure__ 
do  . 

Kneeling,  with 
support. 



Do. 
Do. 

n 

do 

Range  finding 

Lving 

Do. 

7 

Lying,  with  sup- 
port. 

do  -.     _     _ 

Do. 
Do. 

<trt 

3  half  figures" 

3oni--touitli  figures. 

6 

Do. 

10 

do  _  _ 

With  packs. 

llfl 

do  _  - 

Do. 

1? 

do 

Do. 

13 

3one-fonrth  figures. 
3  half  figures 

Do. 

14(1 

do           -      - 

10 

Do. 

15 
Ifi 

3  one-fourth  figures- 
Full  figure,  1  ring 

Kneeling,  with 

support. 
Standing 

Do. 
Do. 

17rt 

do 

8 

Do. 

18 
IP 

3  one-fourth  figures. 

.3  half  figures 

5  full  figures 

3  half  figures 

Kneeling,  with 
support. 

Do. 
Do. 

20 
21a 

Lying,  with  sup- 
port. 

According  to  the 
ground. 

Do. 
Do. 

0  Magazine  fire. 


DENMARK. 


31 


In  series  1  the  aim  is  taken  at  the  bull's-eye  every  time. 

In  series  2  to  6  and  8,  the  instructor,  before  the  firing 
begins,  gives  instructions  about  the  point  of.  aim. 

Series  No.  7  for  trial. 

Magazine  Fire.— In  series  9  and  11,  the  time  is  limited  to 
twenty-five  seconds  for  each  6  shots;  in  series  14,  to  forty-five 
seconds  for  10  shots;  in  series  17,  to  thirty-five  seconds  for  8 
shots;  in  series  21,  to  fifteen  seconds  for  3  shots. 

Firing  at  unknown  ranges. 


No. 

Distance 
in  meters. 

Tarjcet. 

Position. 

Number 
of  shots. 

Sight. 

Remarks. 

No. 

Description. 

22 

3.50-100 

Between 

150-250 
Between 
'250-350 

!) 

11 
12 

Full-length     figure  :  Acconling 
suddenly  appear-       to  ground, 
ing. 

4 
3 

According  to  man's 
judgment. 

do 

.do      .. 

Field  pack 
carried. 

Do. 

n 

Two-third  figure 

do 

Do. 

Score  No.  22  is  conducted  on  the  target  ground.  The  man 
firing  advances  from  a  distance  of  350  meters  to  100  meters 
from  the  target,  and  then  retreats.  -  Whenever  the  target  is 
shown  he  halts  and  fires  a  shot.  The  target  is  visible  each 
time  for  10  seconds.     Each  shot  is  marked. 

Two  men  can  fire  at  the  same  time  each  against  his  own 
figure. 

Scores  Nos.  23  and  24  are  conducted  outside  the  regular 
target  range  and  usually  by  a  firing  line  of  the  same  extent 
of  front  as  that  of  the  targets.  Each  man  has  a  separate 
target  to  fire  upon.  The  figures,  one  for  each  man,  are  placed 
in  groups  of  two  to  five  figures  in  each  group.  The  distance 
between  the  groups  is  about  4  meters,  and  between  the  figures 
of  the  same  group,  about  2  meters  from  center  to  center.  The 
firing  is  slow  fire  by  file  by  command.  After  firing  3  rounds 
the  firing  ceases  and  all  go  to  the  target  to  see  the  effect. 
Each  man  only  notes  whether  he  has  hit  his  own  figure  or 
not. 


32 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Firing   in   open  and   dose   order  {all  available  men   take  part   in   this 

practice). 


No. 

Distance  in 
meters. 

Target. 

Position. 

Num- 
ber of 
shots. 

Sight. 

Kind 
of 
fire. 

Remarks. 

25 

26 
27 

28 
29 

Unknown,  be- 
tween    700 
and  1,200. 

About  700 

Unknown;  be- 
tween    350 
and  550. 

About  30O 

About  200 

Line   of    full- 
length  figures. 

2  section  targets, 
side  by  side. 

Line  of  two- 
tliird  titrures. 

Line  of  one- 
fourth  figures. 

Line  of  two- 
third  figures. 

According  to 
ground. 

_-__-dO  

do 

do 

do 

5 

3 
3 

3 

6 

As  specified  by 
the  commander. 

do 

do 

250 

Mag- 
azine. 

With   knap- 
sacks, etc. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

This  shooting  is  made  by  1  section  to  1  company  at  a  time. 
About  as  many  figures  are  set  up  as  the  number  of  men 
firing;  about  one  to  a  pace. 

With  recruits  the  firing  is  continued  for  two  days. 

Synopsis  of  firing  in  close  order  {ivith  blank  cartridges) . 


Number 

Kipd 
of 
fire. 

No.  of 
score. 

Distance  in 
meters. 

Target. 

Position. 

of  blank 

car- 
tridges. 

Sight. 

Remarks. 

(About  600  ..) 

3  figures  of  horse- 

Kneeling, 

Up  to  8 

400 

Skir- 

Knapsacks 

30 

J  About  450  ..S 

men  at  each  dis- 

with sup- 

mish. 

and  field  out- 

/About 300..) 

tance. 

port. 

fits;  targets 
shown  at  in- 
tervals of  15 
seconds  at 
each    disr 

31 

fAbout  400..1 
^About250__; 

.._.:do 

Standing  __ 

Up  to  6 

250 

Mag- 

tance. 
Do. 

azine. 

32 

U  n  k  n  o  w  n ; 

2     section      targets 

do 

3 

Specified  by 

Vol- 

Knapsacks 

between 

side  by  side. 

commander. 

ley. 

and  field  out- 

700    a  n  d 

fits. 

1,500. 

Immediately  before  fire  is  opened  in  score  31  the  detachment 
runs  forward  100  meters  and  executes  "To  fire — Halt," 

In  firing  volleys  there  should  be  a  uniform  pause  between 
the  volleys, 

SPECIAL   SHOOTING. 

With  the  ammunition  which  may  be  left  over,  special 
shooting  will  be  ordered  by  the  company  commander  or 
director  of  the  course. 

FIELD   SHOOTING, 

which  follows  the  individual  and  collective  shooting,  is  made 
to  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to  actual  warfare. 


DENMARK. 


33 


It  should  be  based  upon  a  tactical  problem  which  should 
be  clear  and  simple.  For  defense,  time  is  given  to  estimate 
distances,  etc. 

The  targets  are,  as  far  as  possible,  arranged  to  rise  and  fall, 
advance  and  retreat,  move  side  wise,  and  fall  when  struck,  as 
may  be  required  to  carry  out  the  problem. 

Figures  9,  10,  and  12  represent  videttes,  skirmishers,  single 
men,  or  small  patrols  in  motion. 

Single  figures,  like  11,  represent  videttes  lying  down,  or 
skirmishers,  or  small  patrols  that  have  halted. 

A  line  of  figures  like  9  represents  a  firing  line  in  motion,  etc. 

Cavalry  targets  are  made  by  combining  figures  like  14; 
artillery  by  combining  figures  like  15  and  16. 

Reserves  can  be  represented  with  targets  without  figures. 

The  effect  of  fire  can  be  shown  by  a  i)rolonged  movement 
of  some  of  the  pieces  forming  the  target. 

The  hostile  fire  can  be  shown  by  igniting  cartridges,  or  by 
the  markers  firing  blank  cartridges. 

The  manner  of  working  the  targets  is  shown  in  Plate  I. 
The  targets  are  brought  to  the  ground  on  a  beam  with  wheels. 
Fig.  A  represents  a  series  of  one-fourth  figures  raised.  By 
means  of  the  levers,  cords,  and  pulleys  they  can  be  turned 
horizontally  and  raised  again  at  will,  for  example : 


At  iisigDal  froni- 


1  balloon  up 

1  balloon  down. 

2  balloons  up' 


1  balloon  up 

1  balloon  down. 


2  balloons  up  . 


b 
a  and  b 


Kaise  one-fourth  figures. 

Raise  one-fourth  figures. 

Lower  one-fourth  figures,  and  raise  two- 
third  figure  one  minute. 

Raise  one-fourth  figures. 

Ijay  one-fourth  figures,  and  raise  two- 
third  figure  three-fourth  minute. 

Raise  one-fourth  figures,  and  raise  two- 
third  figure  three-fourth  minute. 


Plate  II  shows  the  arrangement  for  marking. 

The  markers  and  the  frame  of  the  target  are  protected  by 
an  iron  screen,  "a,"  and  the  markers  also  by  a  covering  of 
earth,  "b,"  and  a  wooden  screen,  "c,"  to  keep  off  fragments 
from  the  earthen  bank  behind  the  target.  After  each  shot, 
or  after  a  signal  on  an  electric  bell,  the  target  is  rolled  in 
and  marked  and  the  result  is  signaled  by  the  wings  of  the 
semaphores. 


34 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Plate  I. 


1 


niiiiilii^^''"'''"' 


inmlll,    illlllllU 

til  1  I  IHH^llllMllll 


DENMARK. 


35 


Plate  II. 


BanA  of   Esr-th 


3  l  (    O    I  J  2 


i2 


Tt- 


36 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


TEST    SHOOTING. 

To  test  tlie  proficiency  iu  firing  in  tlie  detachment^,  etc., 
firings  are  held  annually  by  special  orders  from  the  war 
department. 

No  special  practice  must  be  held  for  preparation. 

The  chief  of  the  detachment  is  responsible  for  carrying  out 
tlie  test  in  accordance  with  the  orders  of  the  war  department 
and  reporting  upon  the  result. 

PRIZE    SHOOTING. 

The  chief  of  the  regiment,  or  some  one  detailed  by  him, 
superintends  the  prize  shooting  ordered  by  the  war  depart- 
ment. 

The  ranges  are  selected  so  as  to  afford  as  equal  chances  for 
the  competition  as  possible. 

Immediately  before  the  shooting  the  competitors  draw  lots 
for  targets,  and  for  the  order  of  shooting. 

The  results  of  the  company  competitions  are  reported  to 
the  chief  of  the  regiment,  or  to  the  man  delegated  by  him. 

The  prizes  are  distributed  according  to  the  number  of 
points.  In  case  of  a  tie  the  last  shot,  or  the  next  to  the  last, 
etc.,  determines  the  precedence. 

Prizes  are  distributed  in  the  presence  of  all  those  who  com- 
pete for  them. 

Number  of  scores,  time  of  prdctice,  number  of  cartridges. 


Number  of  cartridges 
per  man  for — 

Total 
number 
of  car- 
tridges 

Class. 

Course. 

S 

■i 

be      o 

c  =  » 

Score  No. 

Time. 

a 

•-  o"'u 

6 

1 

c 

o 

1 

s 

1 

S 

pq 

1 

§ 

E 

55 
55 

55 

18 
18 
5 

15 

29 

15 

29 
29 

1 

Regimental  recruits: 

For  instruction  in  ISO  days-- 
For  instruction   in    two 
months. 

Body-guard  recruits 

Men  for  continuous  service: 

1-32 

In  the  compa 

are  sent  hor 

1-32 

\()-\^ — — 

1()-19 

24,27,28 

10, 12-15,  23, 

24,  27. 
7,9,14,17-19, 

21,27-29. 
10, 12-14,  23, 

24. 
7-24,  26-29— 
7-24  .  - 

5 
nies 
ue. 

6 

10 
10 
9 

10 

10 

3 

4 
San 

20 
befo 

16 

16 
16 
14 

21 

21 

2 

26 
le  tir 

8 
re   t 

9 

5 
3 

9 

3 

3 

5 

9 
le  as 

30 
hey 

9 

24 
29 

24 

24 

24 

14 

6 
re- 

12 

12 

12 

"I' 

5 

5 

5 

5 
5 

26 
26 

26 

18 
18 

10 

24 

10 

24 
24 

122 
122 

122 

59 

59 

3 

36 

48 

31 

98 
98 

17 
17 

17 

20 
20 

20 

142 

142 

142 
59 

59 

Men    called    for    in    continuous 
practice. 



6 

3 

12 

9 
39 

60 

31 

Officers'  course  in  shooting 

Younger  officers  and  underofficers 

on  temporary  duty  with  recruit 

battalion. 

15 
15 

113 
113 

c 

•uits 

DENMARK.  37 

The  officers  of  the  battalion  statf  and  the  company  officers 
take  part  in  the  officers'  course,  but  captains  only  (in  whole 
or  in  part),  if  they  so  desire,  and  battalion  adjutants  and  staff 
sergeants  can  be  excused  by  the  chief  of  the  battalion  when 
their  duties  make  it  advisable, 

SHOOTIXG-BADGES. 

Of  those  of  the  regimental  recruits  who  before  the  31st  of 
August  have  completed  the  individual  shooting  at  known 
distances,  the  six  who  have  made  the  most  points  in  scores 
10-21  receive  a  badge  "for  shooting."  In  case  of  tie,  scores 
17-21  decide,  or  if  there  is  a  tie  here  also,  scores  12-16. 

CAVALRY. 

The  regulations  for  carbine  shooting  are  similar  to  those 
for  the  infantry  but  have  not  been  revised  since  1899,  whereas 
the  infantry  regulations  were  revised  in  1901. 

The  regulations  for  revolver  shooting,  and  for  the  practice 
of  engineer  troops,  have  been  declared  obsolete  and  are  in 
process  of  revision. 

For  cavalry  the  preparatory  exercises  are  similar  to  those 
for  infantry. 

PROGRAM   FOR  SHOOTING. 

In  the  REC4IMENTAL  ScHOOL. — In  the  second  class  of  the 
school;  drill  with  carbine;  preparatory  drills  in  aiming; 
position  of  firing,  and  pulling  the  trigger. 

Gallery  Shooting. — Five  shots  lying,  with  support,  5 
shots  kneeling,  and  5  shots  standing. 

In  the  Squadron. — First  or  second  year. 

Drills  with  Carbine. — The  drills  in  the  regimental  school 
(preparatory)  are  repeated  in  connection  with  the  target  prac- 
tice.    Preparatory  drills  in  rapid  fire  and  in  squad  fire. 

Ten  shots  per  man  can  be  fired  with  gallery  carbine ;  2  shots 
lying,  3  kneeling,  and  5  standing. 

Shooting  with  blank  cartridges,  on  the  average  2  shots  per 
man. 

Shooting  with  loaded  ammunition :  At  100  meters,  3  shots 
kneeling,  2  shots  standing;  200  meters,  3  shots  lying,  2  shots 
standing;  300  meters,  3  shots  lying,  2  shots  kneeling;  400 
meters,  3  shots  lying,  2  shots  kneeling;  500  meters,  5  shots 
lying,  with  support. 


38  TAKGET   PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Combined  Shooting. — When  advancing  in  loose  order  from 
450  meters,  two  positions  are  taken  between  400  and  250  meters 
and  there  are  fired — from  the  first  position  2  blank  and  5  ball 
cartridges ;  from  the  second  position  1  blank  and  5  ball  car- 
tridges. 

The  fire  is  skirmishing  fire  with  panses.  Target — skirmish 
line  with  half  figures. 

Advancing  from  550  meters,  two  positions  are  taken  between 
500  and  400  meters,  and  there  are  fired — in  the  first  position 
2  blank,  5  ball  cartridges ;  in  the  second  position  1  blank  and 
5  ball  cartridges. 

The  fire  is  given  with  first  1  or  2  shots  as  volleys  in  each 
position,  the  remainder  as  skirmish  fire.     Target — Target  C. 

Shooting  at  unmeasured  distances,  individual  shooting; 
five  shots  with  or  without  support  (at  choice  of  the  marksman 
himself)  against  full-length  figures  at  distances  of  100-300 
meters. 

Drills  with  revolver. 

Judgment  of  distances. 

Drills  with  carbine. 

Repetition  of  preparatory  drills. 

Combined  shooting,  as  for  the  men  of  the  first  and  second 
year. 

IN   THE  SCHOOLS. 

Drills  with  carbine :  Repetition  of  the  preparatory  drills. 

Fifteen  shots  are  fired  by  each  pupil  with  gallery  carbine, 
5  shots  lying,  5  kneeling,  and  5  standing. 

Individual  shooting  with  loaded  ammunition,  and  com- 
bined shooting  the  same  as  the  first  and  second  years. 

Drills  with  revolver. 

Judgment  of  distances:  With  officers  (lieutenants)  and 
underofficers. 

Drills  with  carbine :  The  preparatory  drills. 

Each  man  fires  30  shots  with  gallery  carbine,  of  which  10 
are  against  a  movable  target ;  of  the  remainder,  5  are  fired 
lying,  5  kneeling,  and  10  standing. 

Individual  shooting  with  loaded  ammunition:  At  200 
meters,  1  shot  kneeling,  4  shots  standing ;  300  meters,  3  shots 
kneeling,  2  shots  standing ;  400  meters,  3  shots  lying,  2  shots 
kneeling ;  500  meters,  5  shots  lying. 

Drills  with  revolver:  Judgment  of  distances  in  the  first 
and  second  class. 


DENMARK. 


39 


SPECIAL  SHOOTING. 

Competition. — After  the  shooting  for  the  first  and  second 
years  has  been  completed,  competitions  are  held. 

The  shooting  is  conducted  by  the  regimental  commander 
according  to  rules  given  by  the  minister  of  war,  and  the 
inspector  general  for  the  cavalry. 

The  marksmen  are  selected  from  the  records  of  firing  in 
accordance  with  rules  specified  for  each  competition. 

No  special  practice  for  the  competitions  is  permitted. 

The  regimental  commander  reports  to  the  war  office  the 
results  of  the  competitions. 

OTHER   COMPETITIONS. 

If  the  time  allows,  and  there  is  sufficient  ammunition  avail- 
able, further  competitions  are  held :  Against  movable  targets 
(gallery  shooting,  10-meter  distance) ;  rapid  firing  (with  blank 
cartridges)  and  shooting  at  unmeasured  distances  (ball 
cartridges). 

AMMUNITION. 

The  supply  of  ammunition  in  the  field  is  regulated  as 
follows : 

For  each  man  with  carbine,  40  ball  cartridges,  of  which  30 
are  in  Bretton  holders  in  the  ammunition  bags,  and  10  in  the 
magazine. 

For  each  man  with  revolver,  24  ball  cartridges,  in  4  boxes 
with  6  in  each,  which  are  kept  in  the  cartridge-bag. 


Regimental  school 

First  year  with  the  squadron 

Second  year  with  the  squadron 

Third  and  fourth  year  with  the  squadron 

Practice  school 

Officers  and  underofficers 


Gallery 
cartridges. 


Ball  car- 
tridges for 
carbine. 


Ball  car- 
tridges for 
revolver. 


In  drilling  the  horses  to  stand  fire,  and  in  field  maneuvers, 
the  following  number  of  blank  cartridges  can  be  used  for  the 
carbine : 

Regimental  school 20  cartridges  per  man. 

Men  of  the  first  year 40  cartridges  per  man. 

Men  of  the  second  year 40  cartridges  per  man. 

Men  of  the  third  and  fourth  year 30  cartridges  per  man. 

Second  lieutenants,  sergeants,  and  corpo- 
rals' school .40  cartridges  per  man. 

Undercorporals'  school 30  cartridges  per  man. 


40 


TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


The  following  supply  of  cartridges  is  fixed  for  the  garri- 
sons outside  Copenhagen : 

Carbine  cartridges,  ball 18, 000-33, 000 

Carbine  cartridges,  blank  -  _  _  _  1 4, 000-22, 000 

Carbine  cartridges,  gallery 4, 000-10, 000 

Revolver  cartridges 3,600-  5,500 

The  lowest  number  shows  the  quantity  of  ammunition  to 
be  on  hand  in  case  of  mobilization ;  the  highest  number,  this 
amount  plus  the  quantity  which  will  probably  be  used  in  the 
course  of  the  year. 
Number  of  cartridges  authorized  for  each  man  during  his  instructions. 


i 

Ml 

2 
g 

Shooting  drills. 

5; 

Carbine. 

Revolver. 

Extra 
shots,  etc. 

Total. 

3 

■■J 

Indi- 
vidual. 

Com- 
bined. 

to 

3 

Ball  car- 
tridges. 

Si 

5 

2 
1 

b 

"5 

z 

o 

1 

t 

3 

-a 

■n 
1 

Car- 
bine. 

> 

2 

a 

C 

CS 

5 

> 
1 
o 

1 

o 
"3 

3 

1 
'u 

s 

s 

0) 

C 

a 

i 

•a 

5 

'C 

a 

3 

o 

g 

s 

•6 

s 

o 

3 

3 
3 

be 
■3 

■s 

3 

"3 

15 
10 
10 

3 

2 
2 

18 
12 
12 

?0 

Men  of  tbefirst  year  with  the 

2 
2 

30 
30 

6 
(i 

6 
6 

20 
•20 
20 

20 
20 

2 

2 
1 

2 
2 
5 

1 

8 
8 
6 

6 
6 

52 
52 
21 

52 
52 
25 

4 

13 

40 

Men  of  the  second  year  with 

4 

12 

— - 

40 

Men  of  the  thinl  and  fourth 

30 

Second    lieutenants,     ser- 
geants,   and    corporals' 

15 
15 
30 

... 

30 
30 
30 

4 

4 
4 

18 

18 
12 

6 
6 
6 

5 
5 

2 
.5 

20 
20 
30 

4 
4 

4 

26 
26 
23 

40 

I'ndercorporals'  school 

40 

The  targets  which  are  used  at  the  drills  are  the  divided 
Targets  A  and  B,  Target  C,  figure  target,  pistol  target,  gal- 
lery target,  and  aiming  targets. 

Targets  A  and  B  have  a  square  bull's-eye  with  rectangular 
spaces  around  it;  Target  C  has  no  divisions. 

The  figure  targets  are  pasted  on  cardboard. 

The  targets  have  the  following  dimensions  in  centimeters : 


Target. 


Width.      Height.       Center  square. 


Division  outside  center. 


Target  A  (inf.  2)  — 
Target  B(inf.  4).. 
Target  C 

Pistol  target 

Salon  target 

Figure  target 

Half-figure  target. 


100 
280 
320 


188 
188 
188 


30 
1721 


80  wide,  100  high. 
140  wide,  188  high. 


8  widel    Inner  rectangle,  48  high,  16  wide;   center 
24  high;        rectangle,  94  high,  31  wide. 
5  10  wide,  15  high. 

Pasted  on  cardboard  and  cut  out  along  the  outline  of  the 
figure. 


DENMARK.  41 

ARTILLERY    PRACTICE. 

Denmark  has,  for  many  years,  been  troubled  by  lack  of 
sufficient  appropriation  to  carry  out  the  improvements  in  its 
artillery  materiel  that  its  officers  have  desired.  Recently 
extensive  trials  have  been  made  of  all  the  most  improved 
systems  of  rapid-fire  field  guns,  and,  as  a  result  of  the  reports 
of  these  trials,  large  sums  have  been  appropriated  for  new 
materiel  which  will  probably  soon  result  in  a  revision  of  its 
system  of  target  practice. 

After  the  usual  preliminary  drills  and  instructions  in  the 
theory  of  ballistics,  and  in  the  use  of  the  sights  against 
targets  of  different  kinds,  the  field-artillery  practices  at  the 
range  nearest  to  the  garrison,  in  firing  with  loaded  ammuni- 
tion, and  when  these  exercises  are  completed,  each  battery  in 
turn  is  sent  for  several  days  to  one  of  the  target  grounds  for 
field  practice.  One  of  these  grounds,  situated  at  a  day's 
march  from  Copenhagen,  covers  several  square  miles  of  roll- 
ing country  with  a  surface  varied  by  forests,  pastures,  culti- 
vated, sandy,  and  swampy  land,  with  some  fences  and  stone 
walls  and  a  few  buildings ;  but  generally  open  and  affording 
admirable  positions  for  imaginary  warfare. 

The  exercises  here  are  based  upon  a  tactical  supposition 
which  is  so  contrived  as  to  give  practice  in  the  work  that 
would  be  required  of  a  battery  in  action.  The  targets  are 
made  to  represent  as  nearly  as  possible  the  appearance  of  the 
enemy  against  whom  the  fire  is  to  be  directed,  and  the  battery 
and  its  commander  have  no  more  knowledge  of  the  nature  or 
position  of  this  target  than  in  actual  warfare  they  would  have 
about  the  enemy.  For  instance,  a  battery  commander  is 
told  to  take  up  a  position  on  a  certain  little  hill  and  fire 
against  another  battery  in  position  on  the  right  of  the  red 
farmhouse  with  two  chimneys,  or  against  a  line  of  skirmish- 
ers in  the  cornfield  to  the  left  of  a  certain  forest,  or  to  take 
up  a  position  to  prevent  hostile  cavalry  from  crossing  a  cer- 
tain point,  etc.  In  any  event  the  target  is  not  usually  seen 
by  the  battery  commander  until  he  arrives  on  the  spot.  He 
must  then  find  the  target,  select  the  ground  for  the  guns, 
estimate  the  distance,  decide  upon  the  ammunition,  fuse,  etc., 
and  take  such  measures  that  in  coming  into  battery  his  men 
and  horses  are  not  too  much  exposed  to  hostile  fire.  In  the 
latter  case  he  may  be  obliged  to  fire  with  only  a  few  of  his 
guns  and  even  then  with  reduced  effect. 


42  TARGET   PRACTICE    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Great  attention  is  paid  to  the  time  required  to  find  the 
target,  and  to  the  number  of  trial  shots  necessary  to  get  the 
range.  As  soon  as  practicable  a  field  observatory  is  set  up 
to  watch  the  shots.  This  is  simply  an  extensible  ladder  with 
a  hinged  prop  to  support  it  and  a  rest  for  a  spyglass  near  the 
top.  It  is  so  placed  that  the  observer  can  see  without  being 
himself  too  conspicuous. 

The  amount  of  ammunition  for  all  the  artillery  firing 
depends  upon  the  annual  appropriations. 

TARGETS. 

For  Field  Artillery. — The  targets,  representing  infantry 
in  line  standing  uj),  are  rectangles  measuring  30  and  15  feet 
wide  by  5  feet  high ;  infantry  kneeling  or  partly  covered,  30 
feet  wide  by  3  feet  high;  infantry  in  column,  10  feet  wide 
and  15  feet  high;  for  the  pieces  and  limbers  of  artillery, 
H -shaped  figures  5  feet  wide  and  5  feet  high;  for  skirmishers 
standing,  figures  about  20  or  21  inches  wide  and  5i  feet 
high;  for  skirmishers  kneeling,  21  inches  wide  and  33 
inches  high;  for  skirmishers  lying,  22  inches  wide  and  19  inches 
high.  Sometimes  the  targets  are  set  up  in  rifle  pits.  Disap- 
j)earing  targets  are  30  feet  long  and  6  feet  high  with  two 
pivots  at  the  center  of  each  end,  which  rest  on  supports  which 
are  driven  into  the  ground  wherever  the  target  is  required. 

Movable  targets,  12  to  20  feet  long  and  G  feet  high,  are 
moved  on  sleds  with  corrugated-iron  runners.  The  wooden 
framework  is  covered  with  canvas  or  linen.  The  sled  is 
dragged  by  a  line  attached  to  a  wagon  or  limber. 

The  targets  for  fortification  artillery  consist  of  real  objects, 
viz,  old  cannon,  magazines,  bombproofs,  gun  pits,  rifle  pits, 
sapheads,  batteries  made  of  old  cannon;  and  representations 
of  objects,  such  as  siege  batteries  traced  on  the  ground  and 
with  the  exterior  slopes,  etc.,  marked  by  colored  cloth. 
Infantry  targets  60  and  30  feet  long  and  5  feet  high.  Stand- 
ing figures  5  feet  high  and  2  feet  wide,  kneeling  figures  2^ 
feet  high  and  2  feet  wide,  lying  figures  14-  feet  high  and  2  feet 
wide.  Artillery  pieces  or  limbers,  5  feet  high  and  5  feet  wide. 
All  kinds  of  objects  against  which  the  fire  of  position  artillery 
may  be  directed  are  represented  by  combinations  of  flags,  etc. 

Targets  falling  automatically  when  struck  are  made  as 
follows :  A  figure  representing  a  kneeling  skirmisher  is  cut 
out  of  a  board,  f  or  ^  inch  in  thickness,  and  set  up  with  a 


DENMARK.  -        43 

slight  inclination  from  the  vertical,  supported  by  a  hook 
whicli  is  hinged  to  a  stake  and  caught  in  a  staple  on  the 
target.  A  little  hammer  turning  on  a  pivot  is  supported  in 
a  horizontal  position  by  a  little  pin  so  that  when  the  target 
is  struck  it  falls  and  knocks  the  hook  out  of  the  staple  and 
the  target  falls  to  the  ground.  Another  figure,  representing 
a  skirmisher  lying  down,  is  supported  by  a  copper  wire  with 
an  eye  in  the  end,  instead  of  by  the  hook.  The  eye  is  passed 
over  a  pin  on  the  top  of  the  target  so  that  when  the  hammer 
falls  the  wire  is  knocked  off  and  the  target  drops. 

To  represent  field  artillery,  a  standing  figure  is  set  up  on 
each  side  of  the  target  representing  the  piece,  and  is  held  up 
by  a  hook  which  is  loosened  in  the  same  manner  as  with  the 
kneeling  and  lying  figures. 

For  Seacoast  Artillery,  moving  targets,  made  to  be 
drawn  by  torpedo  boats  or  tugs,  are  constructed  on  the  plan 
of  a  catamaran  as  shown  by  the  sketches. 
A  for  mitrailleuse. 
B  for  guns  of  small  caliber. 
C  for  guns  of  medium  and  large  caliber. 

The  dimensions  are  given  in  feet. 


44 


TARGET  PRACTICE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


A.— Target  for  Mitrailleuse. 

- ---J6' 


m: 


w  — ^ 


~-6"^6' 


B. — Target  for  cuns  of  sma  I  caliber    drawn  by  torpedo  boat  (10  miles"  speed). 
It- 24 J 


DENMARK. 


45 


C. —Target  used   for  shooting  with  large  and  mediunn  caliber. 
Z4- - 


; 


/ 


/    I 
/     I 


I       / 
I      / 
I    / 
I  / 

1/ 

I 


\ 


\ 


T^: 


TS 


:^ 


-30' 


Covered  with  haiiens  or  hoards. 


III.-FRANCE. 

[Reported  by  Capt.  T.  Bentley  Mutt,  Artillery  Corps,  I'uittMi  Stativs  Military  Attaclii',  Paris.] 


Target  practice  to  he  executed  each  year. 


Kind  of  piactice. 


Numlier  of 
cartridges. 


Blank.     Ball 


100 
100 
200 
300 
400 
300 
200 


200 
300 
300 
400 
600 
250 


800 

1,0(XI 

800 

600-400 
a50 


200 
300 

250 


800-600 
300 


-Infantry. 


((t)    GaUerij  practice. 


Active  army,  60 

Keserves  and  territorials,  5  full  or  15  reduced  . 


(6)  Individual  preliminary  practice  (Tirs  d^instructioh). 


Standing,  with  rest,  target  0.50  meter  in  diameter. 

Kneeling,  target  0.50  meter  in  diameter 

Standing,  target  1  meter  in  diameter 

Kneeling,  target  1..50  meters  in  diameter 

Lying,  target  2  meters  in  diameter 

Standing,  target  1.50  meters  in  diameter 

Kneeling,  target  1  meter  in  diameter 


(c)  Applied  practice  {Tirx  d'application). 

Kneeling,  .silhouette,  man  lying 

M'ith  rest,  in  trench,  silhouette,  man  kneeling 

Standing,  silhouette,  man  standing 

Lying,  2  silhouettes,  man  kneeling 

Kneeling,  4  silhouettes,  man  standing  at  0.15-meter  interval 

Magazine  tire,  30  seconds,  2  silhouettes,  man  standing,  at  0.1.5-meter 

interval  

Standing,  at  disappearing  bust  target 


(d)   Collective  firiw]  {Fenx  collect  if »). 

Volleys  by  section  : 

Standing  or  kneeling,  word  of  command  by  sergeants 

Standing  or  kneeling,  word  of  command  by  chiefs  of  sections. _. 
Standing  or  kneeling,  45  seconds 

Fire  at  will : 

Fire  at  will  advancing,  directed  by  chiefs  of  sections 

Rapid  fire,  directed  by  chiefs  of  sections,  sight  at  400  meters, 

time  30  seconds 

Magazine  fire,  standing  or  kneeling,  word  of  command  by  chiefs 
of  sections,  time  30  seconds 


Total. 


RESERVE   ARMV. 


(o)   Individual  practice. 


3  cartridges  standing  and  3  kneeling,  at  target  1  meter  in  diameter  . 

3  cartridges  standing  and  3  lying,  at  target  1.50  meters  in  diameter. 

Magazine  fire  at  2  silhouettes,  man  standing,  at  interval  of  0.15  meter, 

time  30  seconds 


(h )    Collective  practice. 

Volley  firing  by  section  standing  or  kneeling,  word  of  command  In- 
reserve  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers 

Rapid  fire,  time  30  seconds,  word  of  command  by  chiefs  of  sections 
(sight  of  400  meters) 


Total  for  reserves . 


8 
120 


(47) 


48  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Target  practice  to  he  executed  each  year — Continued. 


Number  of 
cartridges. 

^o. 

Distances. 

Blank. 

Ball. 

Metera. 

TERRITORIAL    ARMY. 

(<()   luiUfiditnJ  practke. 

26 

27 
28 

200 
300 
250 

6 

3  cartridges  standing  and  3  lying,  at  target  1.50  meters  in  diameter. 
Magazine  fire,  time  40  seconds,  at  2  silhouettes,  man  standing  at 

6 

8 

20 

II. — Cavalry. 

(a)   Gallery  praclke. 

{h)   Indicichial prelitiiimtrii practice. 

29 

200 
200 
400 
600 

6 

30 

6 

31 

0 

39 

6 

((•)  Applied  practice. 

33 
34 

250 
400 

6 

6 

(</)   Collective  practice. 

35 
36 
37 

600 

800 

4(K»-500 

6 

3 

3 

4.S 

RESERVE   ARMY. 

((()  Individual  practice. 

38 
39 

200 
400-800 

6 

9 

(6)   Collective  firing. 

40 
41 

600 
400 

6 

3 

24 

TERRITORIAL   ARMY. 

('()   Individual  practice. 

42 
43 

200 
400 

3 

3 

(6)   Collective  firing. 

44 

400 

G 

12 

III. — Field  Artillery  (with  Carbine). 

(a)    GaUerij  practice. 

(6)  Individual  preliminari/  practice. 

100 

100 

200 
200 
200 
2(K» 

Wkli  rest,  standing,  target  0.50  meter  in  diameter,  black  bull's-eye 

3 

Offhand,  standing,  target  0.50  meter  in  diameter,  black  bull's-eye 

3 

3 

do                                                          _.                        -               _     _ 

6 

do                                                     _       -                  -           -                    - 

6 

do                                               - 

6 

FRANCE. 
Revolver  practice. 


49 


Kiuil  of  piactioe. 


Numlier  of 
cartridges. 


Blank.      Ball 


IXFANTRY    AXn    CAVAI.UY. 

Actiri'  artiiij. 

Intermittent  fire,  for  each  officer  or  man  armed  with  the  revolver 

Intermittent  fire,  for  each  officer  or  man  armed  with  the  revolver 

Intermittent  tire,  for  each  officer  or  man  armed  with  the  revolver 

Intermittent  tire,  target  at  15  meters,  a  circle  20  centimeters  in  diameter. 
Continuous  fire,  target  at  30  meters,  a  circle  40  centimeters  in  diameter. 

Reserve  and  territorial  army. 

Intermittent  fire,  each  officer  and  man 


Aitini unition  allowance. 


Organizations. 

Ball  car- 
tridges, rifle 
or  caibine. 

Re- 
volver, 

in- 
fantry 

and 

cav- 
alry. 

Blank  car- 
tridges. 

In- 
fantry. 

Cav- 
alry. 

In-      Cav- 
fantry.  airy. 

Active  army: 
Officers' 

120 
120 
120 

27 
27 
27 

20 
20 
20 

48 
48 
48 

24 
24 
24 

12 
12 
12 

36 
'      36" 
12 
12" 
12 

50 

18 

Reserves: 
Officers 

20 

6 

Territorial  army: 



6 

Gallery  practice,  full  or  reduced  charges: 
Infantry — 

Active  army 

Reserves  or  territorials,  15  reduced,  5  fulL 

Cavalry — 

Active  aimy 

Reserve  or  territorials 

Field  artillery  (carbine) — 

Active  aiiny 

Reserves  or  territorials 


BlavJc 
cartridges 


INFANTRY. 

The  education  of  the  soldier  in  shooting  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  phases :  First,  the  preparatory  exercises,  gallery  prac- 
tice and  firing  at  known  distances,  conducted  under  favorable 
conditions  and  individually ;  second,  the  practice  at  silhouettes 
at  known  and  unknown  distances,  individual  or  collective 
skirmish  firing,  and  volley  practice  under  every  variety  of 
conditions,  exactly  as  the  soldier  would  find  them  in  w^ar. 


50  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  men  are  divided  into  two  classes  according  to  their 
proficiency. 

The  ammunition  for  the  year  is  tnrned  over  to  the  captains, 
who  are  allowed  a  large  initiative  in  its  use  for  the  instruction 
of  their  men.  Each  captain  selects  a  lieutenant  to  supervise 
the  instruction  of  the  noncommissioned  officers,  and  a  ser- 
geant, who  is  especially  charged  with  the  details  of  the  prac- 
tice, teaching  the  awkward  and  helping  the  lieutenant  in 
developing  instructors  among  the  men.  This  sergeant  is 
called  the  "target-practice  sergeant." 

An  officer  is  selected  by  the  regimental  commander  to  lec- 
ture on  the  subjects  treated  of  in  the  documents  furnished  by 
the  "  Ecole  Normale  de  Tir."  Each  year  this  school  furnishes 
the  various  regiments  with  copies  of  lectures  delivered  there, 
and  with  information  as  to  recent  progress  in  matters  of  tar- 
get practice. 

The  old  way  of  establishing  a  man's  ability  as  a  shooter  by 
the  percentage  he  had  made  in  individual  practice  has  been 
mostly  abandoned.  At  present  practical  examinations  are 
used  to  determine  the  comparative  skill. 

The  prizes  given  for  shooting  are  equally  divided  among 
the  various  companies. 

The  colonels,  with  the  approval  of  the  general  commanding 
the  brigade,  arrange  the  programs  of  the  collective  service 
practice. 

It  is  recognized  that  the  responsibility  for  producing  good 
shots  rests  chiefly  with  the  captain  and  he  is  given  great  lati- 
tude to  this  end. 

In  each  regiment  a  captain  is  designated  as  instructor  and 
range  officer.  He  has  a  lieutenant  as  assistant ;  he  is  required 
to  be  present  at  all  collective  skirmish  firings,  though  he  may 
send  his  assistant  to  others ;  he  keeps  the  regimental  target 
book  and  has  the  usual  functions  of  a  range  officer. 

Officers  are  required  to  learn  to  shoot  and  are  practiced  in 
using  the  range-finder  and  in  estimating  distances. 

Allowance  of  Ammunition. — Each  officer  and  man  is 
allowed  the  cartridges  indicated  in  the  tables  on  page  47. 
Cartridges  for  competition  and  examinations  are  furnished 
from  this  allowance.  For  the  collective  service  practice,  50 
cartridges  per  man  are  allowed  in  addition,  for  each  man 
taking  part.  The  whole  allowance  is  required  to  be  consumed 
in  the  course  of  the  year. 


FRANCE.  51 

In  individual  practice  the  targets,  silhouettes  or  groups, 
are  placed  at  least  4  meters  apart. 

A  noncommissioned  oflScer  is  charged  with  supervising  the 
markers  in  the  pits. 

In  the  practice  at  known  distances  the  range  officer  places  on 
the  line  of  targets  a  frame  2  meters  square  covered  with  ruled 
paper.  He  then,  before  the  men  arrive,  fires  12  shots  from 
a  rest,  with  a  rifle  whose  shooting  he  is  familiar  with,  aiming 
each  time  at  the  lower  edge  of  a  circle  traced  with  a  diameter 
equal  to  the  range  divided  by  1,000.  The  center  of  impact  is 
then  determined,  and  the  resulting  point  at  which  to  aim  is 
marked  on  a  regulation  target  which  is  placed  to  the  right  or  left 
of  the  line  of  targets.  This  serves  as  an  indication  to  the  men 
of  corrections  to  make  in  their  aiming.  If  during  the  day's 
shooting  the  atmospheric  conditions  change  decidedly,  the 
range  officer  redetermines  the  point. 

There  are  two  markers  for  each  target,  one  who  pastes,  and 
one  who  signals  the  score  of  each  shot  with  a  flag. 

PREPARATORY   EXERCISES. 

These  are  in  general  similar  to  those  prescribed  in  our 
regulations.  The  men  are  first  taught  to  place  the  piece  in 
the  correct  position  of  aim,  to  do  so  rapidly  and  accurately, 
then  the  instruction  proceeds  in  the  use  of  the  sights,  aiming 
with  the  different  elevations,  action  of  the  finger  on  the  trig- 
ger, pulling  the  trigger  without  deranging  the  aim,  etc. 

Instruction  with  the  gun  on  a  rest  to  induce  regularity  in 
aiming,  in  the  amount  of  front  sight  to  take,  etc.,  proceeds 
on  lines  with  which  we  are  familiar. 

The  instructions  for  the  positions  standing,  kneeling,  and 
lying  down  are  almost  exactly  the  same  as  in  our  regulations 
excei^t  that  in  the  position  of  the  "order  kneeling"  the  butt 
of  the  piece  is  held  on  the  right  thigh,  the  left  hand  grasping 
the  stock. 

GALLERY   PRACTICE. 

After  thorough  instruction  in  the  preparatory  exercises  the 
recruits  are  given  a  course  in  gallery  practice  before  going  on 
the  range.  The  allowance  of  ammunition  will  be  found  in 
the  table.  This  practice  is  executed  in  the  three  positions, 
first  at  targets,  and  then  at  silhouettes.  They  begin  with 
individual  practice  at  fixed  targets,  then  at  moving  and 
disappearing  targets,  then  practice  for  rapidity,  individual 
practice  at  word  of  command,  and  volley  firing. 


52 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


The  practice  with  reduced  charge  is  now  being  largely 
replaced  by  practice  with  the  service  cartridge  at  reduced 
distance  (30,  50,  60,  100  meters)  and  gallery  practice  with  re- 
duced charge  is  maintained  only  at  those  posts  where  no  safe 
range  for  gallery  practice  with  the  service  cartridge  exists. 
The  latter  is  considered  much  more  useful  to  the  soldier  in 
preparing  him  at  once  for  the  range  and  prevents  his  acquir- 
ing the  bad  habits  which  come  with  shooting  reduced  charges. 

Whenever  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  safe  range  within  2  or 
3  miles  of  the  post,  gallery  practice  is  used  with  reduced 
charges.  Gallery  practice  with  full  charges  is  given  not  only 
to  recruits,  but  to  all  soldiers,  each  being  allowed  60  car- 
tridges a  year.  The  captain  regulates  the  kind  of  instruction 
to  be  given  to  each,  and  he  may  direct  men  who  have  been 
prevented  from  practicing  on  the  range,  to  shoot  their  allow- 
ances in  the  gallery. 

The  range  preferred  is  30  meters,  but  ranges  of  50,  60,  or 
100  meters  may  be  used  if  necessary. 

The  targets  used  in  this  practice,  i.  e.,  full  charges  at  re- 
duced distances,  are  of  white  paper  traced  with  two  concentric 
circles  whose  dimensions  are  given  in  the  table.  These  sheets 
are  pasted  on  the  regulation  target  frame  2  meters  square. 


Ranges. 

Radius  of 
inner  circle. 

Radius  of 
outer  circle. 

Diameter  of 
disks. 

Centimeters. 
5 
7.5 

9 
12.5 

Centimeters. 
10 
15 
18 
25 

Centimeters. 
3 

5 

6 

100  meters 

10 

Fig.  1.— Target.  Fig.  2. — Shot  grouper. 

Figures  1  and  2  show  the  ordinary  target  and  the  skeleton 
shot  grouper ;  the  table  gives  the  dimensions  of  the  target 
for  various  ranges. 


FRANCE.  53 

The  points  of  impact  can  be  seen  from  the  firing  point  by 
the  instructor  (using  a  glass  if  need  be),  who  coaches  the  man 
accordingly.  The  holes  are  not  pasted  until  after  each  series 
of  6  shots.  Whatever  the  kind  of  practice,  it  is  considered 
satisfactory  when  all  the  6  shots  of  any  series  have  been 
put  in  the  outer  circle.  Generally  no  conditions  are  imposed 
for  passing  from  one  practice  to  another,  the  instructor  alone 
judging  when  the  man  has  done  well  enough.  No  record  is 
made  of  this  shooting,  though  in  order  to  stimulate  interest 
each  shot  may  be  counted  as  in  ordinary  practice,  i.  e.,  2 
points  for  the  inner  circle  and  1  for  the  outer. 

The  practice  progresses  as  follows : 

1.  The  target  is  a  black  paster  on  a  white  sheet  of  paper. 
The  man  fires  one  series  of  6  shots  and  the  grouping  of  the 
holes  is  remarked.  The  "shot  grouper,"  as  shown  in  the 
sketch,  is  placed  over  the  holes  so  as  to  contain  in  its  outer 
circle  the  greatest  j)ossible  number  of  hits.  This  practice 
shows  the  man  how  his  gun  shoots,  and  enables  the  instructor 
to  teach  uniformity  of  shooting. 

2.  When  a  series  of  six  shots  are  all  contained  in  the 
"grouper,"  the  man  proceeds  to  fire  at  the  target  as  sketched 
above.  The  point  aimed  at  is  a  paster  of  the  dimensions 
given  in  the  table  placed  generally  as  shown  in  the  sketch, 
though,  following  the  peculiarities  of  the  man  and  the  gTin 
as  determined  in  the  first  practice,  it  may  be  placed  in  another 
position  whose  relation  to  the  center  of  the  target  is  such  as 
would  cause  that  center  to  be  hit  when  the  paster  is  aimed  at. 

3.  The  two  practices  as  aboA'e  being  satisfactory,  shooting 
at  will  and  at  the  word  of  command,  rapid  and  magazine 
fire,  are  next  taught  in  succession.  For  this  practice  the  men 
are  placed  in  line,  elbows  touching,  and  each  shoots  at  his 
own  target. 

The  firing  at  will  is  at  first  slow  and  then  proceeds  pro 
gressively  to  "rapid  fire"  (6  shots  in  thirty-five  seconds). 
Sometimes  a  dozen  cartridges  are  given  each  man  and  he  is 
allowed  to  fire  as  fast  as  he  can  during  one  minute,  and  the 
results  established.  Some  of  the  firings  at  will,  etc.,  are  per- 
formed from  the  magazine. 

Noncommissioned  officers  and  men  who  have  qualified  as 
marksmen  may  be  excused  from  gallery  practice  if  the  captain 
chooses. 


54  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  men  pass  to  the  practice  at  silhouettes  only  after  they 
have  shown  proficiency  at  the  ordinary  targets. 

The  shooting  at  moving  and  disappearing  targets,  and  the 
firing  for  rapidity,  are  intended  to  teach  the  man  to  load  and 
aim  rapidly  without  quitting  the  target  with  his  eye. 

In  preparation  for  volley  firing,  the  men  are  given  indi- 
vidual practice  at  the  word  of  command,  then  they  pass  to 
volleys  by  squad. 

Commanding  officers  arrange  the  exercises  so  as  to  give  as 
much  variety  as  possible  and  make  the  work  interesting. 

With  Reduced  Charges. — This  practice  is  the  same  in 
principle  as  that  with  the  regulation  cartridge,  except  that 
magazine  and  rapid  fire  are  not  allowed.  The  range  is 
always  15  meters,  the  sight  being  at  250.  The  target  is  of 
white  paper,  15  centimeters  square,  on  which  are  drawn  two 
concentric  circles  with  radii  of  5  and  10  centimeters,  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  diameters  as  in  the  sketch  above  given. 
A  black  disk,  1.5  centimeters  in  diameter,  is  pasted  at  the 
center  so  that  its  lower  edge  is  tangent  to  the  horizontal 
diameter.  The  point  to  aim  at  is  this  disk.  Metal  plates  for 
targets  are  prohibited,  a  suitable  stop  butt  of  wood,  etc., 
being  required. 

RANGE   PRACTICE. 

The  actual  firing  on  the  range  is  diA'ided  into  five  courses. 

1.  "Tirs  d'instruction,"  at  known  distances  (100  to  400 
meters),  against  circular  targets. 

2.  "Tirs  d'application,"  at  known  distances  (200  to  600 
meters),  against  silhouettes  drawn  on  rectangular  paper  tar- 
gets, representing  men  in  three  positions. 

3.  "Tirs  de  combat  individuels,"  individual  combat  prac- 
tice at  unknown  distances,  generally  up  to  600  meters,  utiliz- 
ing cover,  against  fixed  or  moving  silhouette  targets,  or 
manikins. 

4.  ' '  Feux  collectif  s, "  volley  firing,  or  firing  at  will  at  known 
distances,  or  advancing,  against  silhouettes  painted  in  rows, 
to  teach  fire  discipline  and  to  prepare  for  5 ;  executed  at  from 
200  to  1,000  meters. 

5.  "Tirs  de  combat  collectifs,"  collective  combat  practice, 
under  service  conditions^  the  company'  or  battalion  advanc- 
ing to  attack,  targets  being  silhouettes,  manikins,  etc.,  fixed 
and  moving;  volleys,  counted  cartridges,  and  fire  at  will. 


FRANCE.  55 

The  dimensions  and  arrangement  of  the  various  targets 
mentioned  above  will  be  given  with  the  description  of  each 
kind  of  practice  now  to  follow. 

1.  TiRS  d'Instruction.— For  this  preliminary  individual 
practice,  the  target  is  a  wooden  frame  2  meters  square,  cov- 
ered with  paper  traced  with  two  concentric  circles  of  dimen- 
sions, according  to  the  range,  as  follows: 

100  meters -_. diameter,  0.25  and  0.50  meters. 

200  meters diameter,  0. 50  and  1 .  00  meters. 

300  meters diameter,  0. 75  and  1 .  50  meters. 

400  meters diameter,  1. 00  and  2. 00  meters. 

Horizontal  and  vertical  axes,  intersecting  at  the  centers,  8 
centimeters  wide,  complete  the  target. 

A  hit  in  the  inner  circle  counts  2  points ;  in  the  outer  circle, 

1  point;  outside  of  this,  zero;  ricochet  hits,  zero. 

Each  man  fires  42  shots  during  the  season  at  these  targets 
as  shown  in  the  tables  on  page  47.  He  must  make,  out  of  a 
possible  84,  a  score  of  25  before  he  is  passed  on  to  applied 
practice  (No.  2).  To  this  end  he  may  be  obliged  to  fire  some 
of  his  applied  allowance  at  preliminary  practice. 

2.  TiRS  d'Application. — For  this  applied  practice  the 
targets  are  all  silhouettes  of  men  5  feet  6  inches  tall,  lying, 
kneeling,  or  standing.  The  silhouettes  are  traced  in  black 
on  a  target  frame  covered  with  white  paper.  The  progress 
of  this  practice  is  given  in  the  tables  page  47.  For  practices 
numbered  8,  9,  and  10,  the  silhouettes  are  drawn  on  the  lower 
part  of  a  panel  1  meter  wide  and  2  meters  high.  A  horizontal 
line  passing  through  the  top  of  the  silhouette  limits  the  part 
of  the  panel  to  be  struck.     Every  hit  in  the  silhouette  counts 

2  points;   if  below  the  horizontal  line  and  outside  the  sil- 
houette, 1  point. 

For  practice  at  Nos.  11  and  13,  two  silhouettes  are  traced 
on  the  panel  2  meters  square.  The  silhouettes  are  framed  in 
a  rectangle  of  the  height  of  the  figure  and  1.50  meters  wide. 
A  hit  in  the  rectangle  counts  2  points. 

For  practice  at  No.  12,  the  4  silhouettes  are  traced  on  a 
panel  3  meters  wide  by  2  high.  A  horizontal  line  across  the 
top  of  the  figures  limits  the  space  in  which  a  hit  counts.  A 
hit  in  the  rectangle  counts  2  points. 

In  practice  No.  14,  the  bust  silhouette  on  the  end  of  a  pole 
is  moved  up  and  down  by  a  marker  in  the  target  pit.  The 
targets  for  the  different  men  shooting  are  marked  distinctly ; 


56  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

each,  target  is  raised  aud  lowered  always  at  the  same  iDoiiit. 
It  appears  for  three  seconds  and  disappears  for  three  seconds. 

When  the  range  is  not  long  enough  for  the  distances  pre- 
scribed, the  applied  practice  is  held  at  such  ranges  as  are 
possible. 

In  applied  practice  a  ricochet  hit  counts  1. 

3.  TiRS  DE  Combat  Individuels. — Executed  by  all  men 
who  have  qualified  for  the  "tirs  d'application."  In  the  gal- 
lery practice  a  preparation  for  this  practice  is  made;  the 
various  exercises  of  campaign  service  are  utilized  to  teach 
the  positions,  and  blank  cartridges  used  as  the  instructio]i 
progresses.  The  captain  has  great  latitude  in  teaching  this 
shooting,  in  choice  of  targets,  etc.  Of  course  he  is  limited 
by  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  range  which  is  at  his 
disposal. 

The  targets  are  usually  silhouettes,  bust  silhouettes,  and 
manikins,  fixed  and  movable.  The  practice  is  held  after  being 
fatigued  with  drills  and  marches,  and  after  double  timing. 

When  there  is  no  maneuver  ground  near  the  garrison  suit- 
able for  this  practice,  advantage  is  taken  of  any  presence  of 
the  regiment  at  a  suitable  range. 

Cartridges  for  this  practice  come  from  savings  effected  from 
the  other  practices. 

4.  Feux  Collectifs. — Executed  by  all  the  men  without 
distinction  as  to  marksmanship,  at  a  target  consisting  of 
panels  placed  side  by  side,  making  a  target  2  meters  high  by 
20  meters  long.  Profiles  of  28  silhouettes,  men  standing  with 
0.15-meter  interval,  are  painted  in  black  on  this  target.  The 
of&cer  commanding  the  section  orders  the  sight  to  be  used  and 
gives  the  commands  for  the  fire  and  the  point  to  be  aimed  at. 
Ricochets  count  as  hits.  When  the  garrison  range  is  not 
suitable  for  this  collective  practice  it  is  held  at  the  time  and 
place  prescribed  for  the  collective  combat  firing. 

5.  Tirs  de  Combat  Collectifs. — The  program  for  this 
practice  is  mapped  out  by  the  commanding  officer  according 
to  the  material  and  ground  at  his  disposal  and  submitted  tO' 
the  generals  commanding  the  brigade,  division,  etc. 

The  targets  are  panels,  silhouettes,  moving  targets,  etc., 
representing  the  different  arms.  They  are  placed  beforehand 
in  natural  positions  and  as  much  under  cover  as  possible. 
The  fire  is  opened  against  them  and  progresses  as  much  as 
possible  as  in  actual  combat.    The  distances  being  unknown. 


FRANCE. 


the  ranges  are  determined  by  the  methods  described.  The 
company  is  on  a  war  footing,  and  all  officers  and  men  must 
be  present  if  possible.  Before  this  practice  begins  the  troops 
must  have  had  a  long  march  or  maneuver,  so  as  to  simulate 
actual  conditions. 

Targets, — Revolving  and  sliding  targets,  commonly  used 
in  our  service,  are  rarely  found.  Each  regiment  or  command, 
as  a  rule,  makes  and  maintains  its  own  range  and  targets  so 
that  considerable  variety  will  be  found  within  the  limits  laid 
down  in  the  regulations,  and  following  the  skill,  ingenuity, 
and  resources  of  the  command.  An  annual  credit  is  allowed 
each  organization  for  material  (wood)  out  of  which  to  make 
targets  for  their  practice. 


Fig.  3.— Square  target. 


Fig.  4.  — Rectangular  target. 


,.>\.,Av, ,  uO.\\\V(  \v\\\A\v\\\vv\\\\\\\\\V"V\\\W 
Fig.  6. — Silhouette,  man  kneeling. 


Fig    5.  —  Bust  silhouette 
target. 


Fig.  7.— Silhouette,  man  lying  down. 

Fig.  8. — Silhouette,  man  standing. 

The  amount  varies  with  the  necessities  of  each  as  set  forth 
in  a  report,  generally  85  francs  per  regiment  and  15  francs 
per  isolated  company. 

The  mirror  is  of  colored  or  lightly  ground  glass  and  is  set 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  line  of  sight.     The  man 


58 


TARGET   PRACTICE   IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


sees  the  rear  and  front  sights  and  the  target  through  the 
mirror;   the  instructor  standing  on  the  man's  left,  opposite 


Reflector  in  normal 
position. 

Fig  10.  —  Reflector  for  examining  the  bore  Fig  11. — Tripod    for  use    in  the  aiming   drills  and 

of  infantry  rifle  from  the  breech.  in  shooting  to  determine  accuracy  of  the  rifle. 


Fig.  12.— Tripod. 


Elevaiicn 


Reu 


i^r 


Ptan 


Fig.  13. — Instructor's  mirror  for  verifying  the  accuracy  and  correcting  the  faults  of  a 

recruit's  aiming. 

the  mirror,  sees  in  it  (reversed)  the  rear  and  front  sights  and 
the  target,  and  can  appreciate  at  once  the  mistakes  the  man 
is  making  in  his  aim. 


FRANCE. 


59 


The  above  sketches  give  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the 
various  targets  referred  to  in  the  tables,  of  the  marker's  disk 
and  shot-hole  tamper,  of  the  mirror  for  examining  the  bore, 
of  the  tripod  for  aiming  drills,  and  of  the  mirror  for  teaching 
aiming. 

♦ ssor. . 


Fig.  14. — Type  of  a  600-meter  range  plan. 

Joo_  m. S"^ 2.om._ 


Mm^ 


Fig.  15. — Profile,  pits  entirely  sunk  below  the  natural  level  of 
the  ground. 


One  method, 


Fig.  17.— Section. 


Another  method. 


The  above  plan  and  section  of  a  typical  range,  butt,  and 
pit  need  little  further  explanation.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  earth  in  front  of  the  target  is  removed  to  a  depth  of  about 
6  feet,  and  from  there  slopes  to  the  natural  level  at  about  100 
meters'  distance.     This  is  to  prevent  ricochets. 

The  targets,  of  whatever  nature,  are  erected  on  slides  on 
a  heavy  wooden  sill  in  front  of  the  markers'  pits,  steadied 
by  guy-ropes.  The  hits  are  signaled  and  the  holes  pasted  by 
means  of  a  disk,  with  a  long  handle,  having  a  plug  on  the 
back  for  holding  the  pasters. 


60  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  material  and  the  methods  at  these  garrison  ranges  are, 
from  onr  point  of  view,  rather  crude,  though  it  is  to  be  said 
that  at  the  great  permanent  camps  where  the  infantry,  as 
well  as  the  artillery,  get  their  best  exercises  in  shooting,  the 
arrangements  are  much  better.  The  work  there  done,  in  the 
matter  of  actual  combat  practice  on  varied  ground,  with 
whole  companies  and  battalions  moving  forward  and  shoot- 
ing as  in  battle,  is  much  greater  than  we  have  ever  seen  in 
America. 

As  a  rule  each  garrisoned  town  has  its  permanent  target 
range,  used  throughout  the  year  not  only  by  the  infantry  and 
other  troops  stationed  there,  but  by  the  gendarmery,  the 
customs  and  forest  guards  (douaniers  and  forestiers),  the  ter- 
ritorial regiments,  and  shooting  clubs.  The  latter  are  gener- 
ally organized  among  territorial  regiments  and  consist  wholly 
of  territorials,  or  partly  of  these  and  partly  of  civilians ;  these 
clubs  are  encouraged  by  the  military  authorities  in  every  way, 
ranges  lent  them,  arms  and  ammunition  furnished  or  sold  at 
cost,  prizes  awarded,  etc. 

These  ranges  are  rarely  more  than  600  meters  long,  and 
collective  practice  on  them  is  generally  out  of  the  question. 
A  range  is  not  considered  a  good  one  that  is  less  than  1,000 
meters  long  by  100  wide,  and  permitting  of  all  the  firings 
except  the  combat  exercises.  When  a  garrison  has  no  per- 
manent range,  or  it  is  too  small,  or  circumstances  render  an 
additional  one  advantageous  and  obtainable,  use  is  made  of 
the  occasional  or  temporary  range.  This  is  simply  a  large 
tract  of  land  safe  for  shooting,  and  placed  temporarily  at  the 
disposition  of  the  troops  (generally  in  the  fall,  after  the  crops 
are  in)  by  the  commune,  or  hired  from  the  owners.  No  butts 
or  shelters  are  ever  constructed  on  such  land,  and  the  few 
trenches  that  may  be  dug  are  filled  in  at  the  close  of  the 
practice.  Such  a  range  is  required  to  be  2,000  by  500  meters 
for  the  actual  maneuvers  of  the  troops  using  it,  and  it  must, 
of  course,  besides  this,  present  the  necessary  features  of 
security.  On  these  ranges  all  the  combat  pra'ctices,  even  for 
a  battalion  in  action,  can  often  be  held,  and  at  very  small,  or 
no  expense  to  the  government. 

CAMPS  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  SHOOTING. 

A  short  account  of  these  camps  would  seem  to  be  of  interest 
here.     They  are  primarily  intended  for  the  target  practice  of 


FRANCE.  01 

field  and  siege  artillery,  but  infantry  troops  also  use  them 
for  their  collective-combat  and  long-distance  practice.  The 
principle  of  their  existence  contemplates  one  for  each  army 
corps  or  equivalent ;  actually  there  are  seventeen  such  camps 
in  France  and  one  in  Algeria.  The  army  corps  which  have 
none  use  the  camps  nearest  to  their  region. 

By  far  the  best  and  most  important  of  these  camps  is  the 
one  at  Chalons.  This  is  the  only  place  in  France  where  field 
artillery  can  maneuver  a  fire  as  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
where  combat  practice  of  masses  of  artillery  can  be  had.  At 
this  camp  is  situated  also  the  normal  school  of  target  practice, 
which  furnishes  instructors  to  the  infantry. 

The  camp  at  Fontainebleau  is  also  used  by  the  artillery 
school  of  application  situated  there ;  the  one  at  Bourges  as  a 
proving  ground  for  the  government  foundry  of  Bourges ;  the 
one  at  Poitiers  by  the  commission  of  practical  study  of  artil- 
lery target  practice  which  has  its  seat  there. 

The  brigades  of  field  artillery  (each  of  two  regiments)  use 
their  respective  camps  in  turn,  but  in  order  that  they  may 
not  get  to  know  the  ground  too  well,  they  are  sent  every  two 
or  three  years  to  a  different  camp.  When  the  camp  is  over 
7  or  8  miles  from  the  garrison,  the  troops  go  into  camp  on  the 
ground,  and  to  this  end  temporary  and  even  permanent  shelter 
has  been  erected  at  some  of  them. 

The  artillery  regiments  pass  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
days  each  year  at  these  camps. 

Infantry  collective-combat  practice  demands  a  range  500  by 
4,000  or  5,000  meters;  a  range  for  all  arms  must  be  9,000  or 
10,000  by  6,000  or  7,000  meters. 

CAVALRY. 

What  has  thus  far  been  written  applies  in  its  entirety  to 
infantry  target  practice.  The  cavalry  allowance  of  ammuni- 
tion and  the  ranges  at  which  it  is  shot  can  be  seen  in  the 
tables,  p.  48. 

The  cavalry  troops  generally  have  no  special  target  ranges ; 
they  use  whatever  ones  the  region  affords.  The  targets  are 
the  same  for  both  arms,  except  that  the  cavalry  does  not  use 
silhouette  targets  of  men  lying  and  men  kneeling ;  the  bust 
and  standing  silhouettes  are  the  same. 

The  revolver  practice  (with  ball  cartridge)  is  executed  only 
on  foot. 


63  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

MACHINE-GUN   PRACTICE. 

This  matter  is  now  being  studied,  but  as  no  type  of  gun  lias 
yet  been  definitely  adopted  for  infantry  battalions,  nothing 
has  been  put  in  practice  concerning  target  practice  for  them. 

SCHOOLS   AND   INSTRUCTORS  OF  INFANTRY  TARGET  PRACTICE. 

There  exists  at  the  great  camp  of  Chalons  the  Ecole  Normale 
de  Tir,  a  thoroughly  equipped  and  most  efficient  school  of 
infantry  target  practice. 

The  object  of  the  school  is: 

1.  To  form  a  body  of  technical  specialists  for  the  school 
itself,  for  the  military  schools  of  Saint  Cyr  and  Saint  Maixent, 
and  for  the  technical  section  of  infantry  at  the  ministry  of  war. 

3.  To  form  for  each  infantry  regiment  a  number  of  target 
practice  instructors  (capitaines  de  tir)  having  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  everything  concerning  target  practice  and  small 
arms. 

3.  To  determine  upon  models  of  arms  and  munitions  intended 
for  the  infantry ;  to  test  all  modifications  proposed ;  to  seek 
modifications  or  improvements  by  research  and  experiment ; 
to  examine  all  matters  submitted  to  it  by  the  minister  of  war 
concerning  the  rifle,  ammunition,  or  target  practice;  to 
experiment  with,  and  test  all  rifles  used  in  foreign  services. 

4.  To  test  all  rifles  coming  from  the  government  factories 
(trimonthly)  and  all  ammunition  being  issued  (monthly). 

5.  To  lay  down  the  rules  for  infantry  fire;  to  indicate  mod- 
ifications of  the  drill  book  made  necessary  by  changes  in  the 
arm  or  ammunition ;  to  propose  means  for  keeping  the  army 
informed  of  all  foreign  progress  in  rifles  or  target  practice. 

The  instructors  of  the  school  consist  of  15  infantry  officers; 
there  is  a  polygon  reserved  solely  for  the  use  of  the  school,  a 
complete  workshop  of  arms  and  ammunition,  78  enlisted  men 
and  7  civilian  employees. 

The  students  are  all  captains  of  infantry  who  have  been 
recommended  by  their  superiors ;  each  regiment  or  battalion 
of  chasseurs  sends  an  officer  every  other  year  to  follow  either 
course  No.  1  or  No,  3;  this  makes  the  number  of  student 
officers  in  all  about  140. 

Course  No.  1  lasts  five  months,  from  February  1  to  June  30. 
It  includes  ballistics  (a  complete  study  thereof),  the  efl^ects  of 
fire,  construction  and  fabrication  of  arms  and  ammunition. 


FRANCE.  63 

and   range   finders.     This   course  is  especially  intended  to 
produce  instructors  for  the  schools,  etc.,  mentioned  above. 

Course  No.  2  lasts  one  month,  from  October  1  to  October  31. 
It  is  confined  to  instruction  in  the  care  and  preservation  of 
the  service  rifle.  This  course  is  especially  intended  to  give 
to  the  regimental  range  officers  (capitaines  de  tir)  the  neces- 
sary technical  mechanical  instruction. 

REGIMENTAL  SCHOOLS  OF  TARGET  PRACTICE. 

In  each  regiment  or  separate  command  these  schools  are 
organized  to  teach  the  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers 
by  lectures,  exercises,  and  questions  what  each  should  know. 
The  lecturers  and  instructors  are  generally  captains  who  have 
come  from  the  Ecole  Normale  de  Tir.  The  officers  are  taught 
by  regiment  or  (more  frequently)  by  battalion ;  the  noncom- 
missioned officers  and  men,  by  company;  the  lieutenant 
colonel  is  charged  with  supervision  of  these  schools. 

The  course  embraces  armament  and  ammunition,  esti- 
mating distances,  range  finders,  and  the  various  prescribed 
drills  and  practices. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  MARKSMEN,  COMPETITIONS,  RECOJMPENSES. 

Infantry.  — At  the  close  of  the  applied  practice,  on  a  day 
fixed  by  the  colonel,  the  annual  classification  takes  place. 
Enlisted  men  who  have  made  a  total  of  36  points  or  more  in 
the  applied  practice  form  the  first  class ;  those  who  have  made 
less  than  this,  the  second  class;  those  who,  in  preliminary 
practice,  have  not  qualified  for  applied  practice,  the  third 
class. 

At  the  end  of  the  season  a  practical  examination,  ordered 
by  the  colonels  or  generals,  is  held  to  see  what  may  be  the 
results  of  the  season's  work  in  each  company. 

The  examination  consists  of  applied  or  individual  combat 
practice  for  the  first  and  second  classes  united;  preliminary 
practice  for  the  third  class,  and,  finally,  collective  practice 
for  the  whole  company. 

All  the  men  not  in  hospital  must  be  present.  No  classifica- 
tion is  made  as  a  result  of  this  examination ;  indeed,  there  is 
no  classification  whatever  of  companies  in  the  regiment,  or 
of  regiments,  etc.,  according  to  skill  in  shooting;  the  only 
classification  is  that  of  the  men  given  above. 


64  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  recompenses  for  shooting  consist,  for  each  company, 
of  one  silver  pin,  three  hunting-horns  embroidered  in  bullion, 
and  a  number  of  horns  made  of  cloth,  equal  to  one-fifth  the 
effective  of  corporals  and  men  in  the  company.  These  are 
given  to  the  best  shots  in  order  of  classification,  and  are  worn 
on  the  left  sleeve  of  the  coat. 

The  sergeants  of  each  regiment,  armed  with  the  rifle,  have 
a  competition  for  the  regimental  prizes  consisting  of  nine 
gold,  silver,  or  embroidered  horns;  those  armed  with  the 
revolver  also  compete  for  a  silver  and  bronze  medal,  given  to 
the  best  shots. 

These  competitions  are  not  exhaustive;  they  are  finished 
in  one  seance;  the  commanding  officer  regulates  the  whole 
matter. 

A  regimental  order  announces  the  names  of  the  best  shots, 
and  this  is  posted  on  the  bulletin  boards  at  headquarters  and 
in  the  companies.  Commanding  officers  are  directed  to  allow 
to  the  good  shots  of  their  commands  all  the  privileges  com- 
patible with  the  interest  of  the  service. 

There  are  no  competitions  other  than  those  just  described. 

Cavalry. — The  classification,  made  after  the  close  of  the 
individual  practice,  is  as  follows:  Men  who  have  made  30 
points  out  of  36  shots  with  the  carbine  and  put  24  hits  out  of 
36  shots  in  the  target  (see  table  p.  48),  using  the  revolver,  con- 
stitute the  first  class;  those  who  have  made  15  points  with 
the  carbine  and  put  12  hits  in  the  target  with  the  revolver, 
constitute  the  second  class;  the  others  form  the  third  class. 
The  recompenses  are  the  same,  and  are  awarded  under 
essentially  similar  conditions  as  for  the  infantry. 

Field  Artillery  (carbine  and  revolver  practice). — The 
classification,  made  after  the  "tirs  d'instruction,"  is  as 
follows  : 

First  class :  All  men  who  have  made  1  point  for  each  shot 
fired  with  the  carbine  and  i  point  for  each  shot  fired  with  the 
revolver ; 

Second  class :  All  men  who  have  made  one-half  the  number 
of  points  required  for  the  first  class; 

Third  class :  The  rest  of  the  men. 

There  are  no  recompenses  for  small-arm  shooting  in  the 
artillery. 

The  latest  regulations  (1902)  regarding  revolver  practice  in 
the  field  artillery  prescribe  one  range  only,  20  meters.     The 


PRANCE.  05 

target  consists  of  a  bull's-eye  5  centimeters  in  diameter,  and 
two  circles  of  25  and  40  centimeters  diameter.  A  hit  in  the 
inner  (25-centimeter)  circle  counts  2  points ;  in  the  outer  circle 
1  point. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  the  field  artillery,  all  men 
not  mounted  are  armed  with  the  carbine  and  bayonet;  all 
mounted  men  with  the  revolver. 

UNIFORM    WORN   AT    TARGET   PRACTICE. 

Gallery  practice  is  held  in  drill  dress  without  knapsack  or 
equipment. 

The  "tirs  d'instruction  "  (preliminary  individual  practice) 
take  place  in  drill  uniform  with  equipments  and  knapsack 
on,  but  the  latter  empty. 

The  "tirs  d'application "  (applied  practice)  are  in  drill 
uniform  with  the  knapsack  fully  packed. 

The  individual  and  collective  combat  practices,  and  all  the 
volley  practice,  take  place  in  regular  campaign  uniform  with 
the  full  campaign  kit  packed  in  place — in  other  words,  heavy 
marching  order. 

(The  drill  uniform  spoken  of  above  is  something  like  our 
stable  dress  and  is  worn  over  whatever  clothes  the  season 
may  demand.) 

ESTIMATING   DISTANCES. 

A  great  deal  of  attention  is  given  to  teaching  the  men  to 
estimate  distances,  and  officers  are  thoroughly  practiced. 

Practice  in  estimating  by  sight  and  comparison  is  given  by 
the  various  means  used  in  all  services  and  familiar  to  our 
own.  This  instruction  is  pursued  in  connection  with  other 
drills  at  all  seasons  and  in  all  weather  throughout  the  year. 
Privates  are  taught  to  estimate  up  to  600  meters,  officers  and 
noncommissioned  officers  up  to  1,200  meters  by  sight,  and  be- 
yond that  by  using  instruments  and  the  map.  The  latter 
work  is  especially  given  to  officers,  but  sergeants  who  show 
aptitude  are  also  instructed. 

At  present  each  infantry  battalion  has  a  telemeter,  but  a 
movement  is  on  foot  to  provide  one  for  each  company.  The 
telemeters  are  thus  distributed  by  regiment :  One  Souchier 
field-glass  stadiometer,  and  three  Labbez,  or  more  recently, 
Goulier  range  finders. 


66  TARGET   PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

However,  most  infantry  officers  have  a  range-finder  field 
glass  of  either  the  regulation  or  other  make,  which  is  their 
private  property,  and  with  this  they  practice. 

Exj)eriments  in  certain  infantry  regiments  on  unknown 
ground  have  given  the  following  results  in  estimating  dis- 
tances by  the  eye:  Officers,  skillful  in  estimating,  make  a 
mean  error  of  12  per  cent  of  the  distance;  officers  not  very 
skillful,  20  per  cent;  privates  of  the  active  army  and  non- 
commissioned officers  of  the  reserve  army,  30  per  cent. 

With  the  Labbez  and  Goulier  instruments,  using  a  tape- 
line  or  wire  for  measuring  the  base,  the  mean  error  is  from 
2.0  to  3.5  per  cent  of  the  distance. 

With  the  field-glass  range  finder,  the  mean  errors  are  7  or 
8  per  cent  of  the  distance. 

It  is  considered  that,  to  be  useful,  a  telemeter  should  give 
the  range  to  within  50  meters. 

FIELD-ARTILLERY    TARGET    PRACTICE. 

The  program  of  instruction  in  target  practice  for  the  field 
artillery  is  comprehensive  and  minute.     It  comprises — 

1 .  Exercises  preparatory  to  actual  practice,  viz : 

(a)  Indoor  work  for  officers  only. 

(6)  Outdoor  work  for  the  whole  battery. 

(c)  Simulated  fire. 

(cZ)  Practice  in  designating  objectives. 

2.  Actual  practice  at  targets : 

(a)  Preparatory  firing. 

(b)  War  practice, 

3.  War  practice  of  masses  of  artillery. 

1.  {a)  The  object  of  this  indoor  instruction  is  to  teach  offi- 
cers how  to  conduct  target  practice  under  all  conditions. 
The  instructor  announces  whatever  conditions  he  may  choose, 
as  to  target,  weather,  estimated  distance,  etc. ;  the  officer 
being  questioned  must  then  give  immediately  the  resulting 
commands  for  the  fire ;  the  instructor  announces  the  observed 
strike  of  the  shot,  the  pupil  continues  with  his  orders  as  to 
range,  fuse,  etc.,  as  thougli  conducting  actual  practice  with 
his  battery.  The  instructor's  oral  indications  are  sometimes 
replaced  by  pictorial  representation  of  the  hits  on  a  black- 
board sketch  of  the  terrain. 

The  j)upi]s  in  this  exercise  are  the  captains  and  lieutenants; 
the  field  officer  is  the  instructor.     This  work  is  continued 


FRANCE.  G7 

every  year  to  keep  the  officers  in  practice  and  enable  tlieni  to 
solve  without  hesitation  any  problem  in  fire  direction. 

(6)  Following  on  this  work  indoors  comes  its  application, 
using  the  guns  and  men  in  the  barrack  court,  stable  corral, 
or  on  the  drill  ground.  These  drills  continue  the  exercis(3  of 
the  officers  in  giving  commands  appropriate  for  any  condi- 
tions under  more  real  surroundings,  and  habituate  the  men 
to  their  work,  so  that  all,  esj)ecially  the  noncommissioned 
officers,  absorb  the  ideas  governing  the  selection  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  fire  and  their  application. 

The  captain  thus  gets  his  battery  in  hand  and  knows  what 
he  can  expect  of  the  intelligence,  quickness,  and  coolness  of 
his  subordinates.  He  is  the  instructor.  He  begins  with  the 
simplest  conditions,  as  "fixed  target,  range  so  and  so,"  and 
proceeds  to  the  most  complex.  He  takes  the  case  of  chang- 
ing objective,  moving  target,  rapid  fire,  distribution  of  fire, 
etc.,  until  his  directions  are  translated  into  correct  action 
almost  mechanically.  When  this  is  well  done  he  takes  his 
battery  to  the  drill  ground  for  a  continuation  of  the  L,ame 
work. 

When  the  separate  batteries  have  been  sufficiently  prac- 
ticed in  this  way,  the  group  (three  batteries)  is  similarly 
exercised  by  the  major  in  the  various  group  problems.  This 
is  always  done  on  the  drill  field  or,  better,  on  varied  ground. 

(c)  The  preceding  practices  have  been  chiefly  mental  exer- 
cises. In  the  simulated  fire  they  are  continued,  but  made 
more  real  by  the  use  of  dummy  cartridges  and  projectiles, 
and  of  petards  of  stout  pasteboard  holding  about  4  ounces  of 
black  powder.  The  latter  are  caused  to  explode  along  the 
positions  supposed  to  be  held  by  the  enemy  and  give  an  imi- 
tation of  his  fire,  and  of  the  striking  projectiles  of  the  battery 
being  instructed. 

This  work  is  first  done  by  battery  and  then  by  group.  It 
is  usually  preceded  by  practice  in  observation  of  fire,  using 
petards  so  as  to  show  the  chiefs  of  platoon  how  to  estimate 
overs  and  unders,  rights  and  lefts,  as  well  as  the  height  of 
the  burst.  When  they  are  fairly  skillful  in  this,  the  prog- 
ress of  fire,  the  whole  battery  working  together,  can  go  ahead 
as  though  actual  projectiles  had  been  used. 

(d)  The  practice  in  designating  objectives  by  the  officers, 
sergeants,  and  pointers,  is  continued  throughout  the  year  in 
all  weather  and  conditions  of  the  atmosphere.    The  idea  is  so 


68  TARGET    PRACTICE    IX   FOREIGN   COUXTRIES. 

to  exercise  these  men  that  there  shall  be  no  confusion,  mis- 
understanding, or  loss  of  time  at  the  moment  of  opening  fire 
upon  an  objective  chosen  by  the  group  or  battery  chief.  It 
is  also  to  develop  skill  in  making  rapid  changes  of  objective, 
concentrating  the  fire  of  several  batteries  or  groups  on  a 
point,  or  again  distributing  it.  They  commence  first  with 
the  officers,  then  with  the  sergeants  and  pointers.  Especial 
attention  is  given  to  teaching  the  staff  officers  (or  noncommis- 
sioned officers),  who  would  be  the  bearers  of  messages  from  one 
battery,  group,  or  brigade  to  another,  to  carry  in  the  eye  the 
objective  which  it  is  desired  to  shoot  at,  so  that  they  may 
unfailingly  indicate  it  to  the  officer  to  whom  the  order  is 
sent.  To  this  end,  also,  they  teach  the  use  of  a  little  deflec- 
tion scale,  held  at  arm's  length  and  enabling  the  aid  to  fix  the 
relation  of  an  obscure  target  to  some  conspicuous  landmark. 
2.  Actual  Practice  at  Targets. — This  is  held  on  the 
ranges  or  camps  of  instruction  spoken  of  on  page  60. 

(a)  The  jjreparatory  firings  are  executed  under  simple  con- 
ditions, slowly  and  in  such  manner  as  to  show  up  every 
mistake.  This  practice  is  preferably  interpolated  with  the 
outdoor  instruction  above  described  in  1  (6)  and  (c). 

When  the  battery  is  already  well  instructed,  these  firings 
may  be  omitted  and  all  the  ammunition  used  for — 

(b)  The  ivar  practice. — Besides  the  captain,  each  lieutenant 
must  command  one  of  the  war  practices.  The  exercise  is 
made  by  every  possible  means  to  resemble  actual  service. 
The  simplest  work  of  course  comes  first,  but  instruction  being 
the  object  and  not  hits,  commanding  officers  do  not  hesitate 
later  in  the  practice  to  place  the  batteries  in  difficult  positions, 
select  indistinct  objectives,  use  indirect  fire  (pointing  on  an 
auxiliary  target),  and  come  into  battery  and  open  fire  with 
the  utmost  rapidity.  The  whole  of  the  preceding  and  rather 
tedious  work  having  been  a  preparation  for  this  practice,  the 
desire  is  to  prove  just  how  effective  the  artillery  would  be  in 
actual  battle,  using  the  methods  taught  it,  while  at  the  same 
time  receiving  excellent  training  in  using  these  methods. 
The  targets  and  ranges  for  the  various  exercises  are  arranged 
with  great  care  and  at  considerable  expense.  They  consist 
of  panels  or  canvas-covered  frames,  silhouettes,  single  and  in 
rows,  dummies,  etc.,  of  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  dif- 
ferent arms  of  the  service  and  formations  in  battle.  Only 
small  use  is  made  of  disappearing,  moving,  and  mechanical 


FRANCE.  69 

targets,  tliougii  some  are  so  arranged  as  to  fall  down  wlieu 
hit.  Petards  are  used  to  disclose  a  hidden  enemy's  position, 
and  trenches  are  dug  and  walls  built  to  give  every  sort  of 
useful  target. 

Each  year,  for  certain  days  of  this  practice,  the  battery  is 
mobilized  on  a  regular  war  footing  to  combine  campaign 
service  with  shooting,  drill  being  had  in  bringing  up  and 
replacing  men,  horses,  and  ammunition  under  fire. 

3.  War  Practice  op  Masses. — Every  year  groups  of  horse 
batteries  and  regiments  of  field  artillery  are  sent  to  the  camp 
of  Chalons  to  constitute,  on  almost  a  war  footing,  the  whole 
artillery  and  ammunition  train  of  an  army  corps.  These 
troops  begin  work  together  with  the  instruction  described 
under  1  (b)  and  (c)  and  proceed  up  to  actual  firing,  following 
every  phase  of  battle  in  which  the  artillery  takes  part.  Sep- 
arate exercises  are  had  for  divisional  artillery,  corps  artillery, 
horse  artillery,  and  then  all  working  together.  Some  of 
these  are  in  combination  with  infantry  and  cavalry  troops. 

The  orders  for  the  target  practice  of  field  and  siege  artil- 
lery for  the  summer  of  1902  direct  the  following  series  of 
practice  for  the  troops  named  at  the  camp  of  Chalons : 

Series  1. — From  April  30  to  May  25,  directed  by  General  Feld- 
mann,  commanding  the  artillery  of  the  sixth  region :  Six 
field  batteries  of  the  twenty-fifth  regiment ;  7  of  the  fortieth ; 
9  of  the  eighth ;  2  horse  batteries  of  the  fifth  division  of  cav- 
alry; 4  batteries  of  the  fifth  battalion  of  foot  artillery;  1 
battery  of  the  fourth  battalion  of  foot;  total,  29  batteries. 

Series  2. — From  May  30  to  June  25,  directed  by  General 
Groth,  commanding  the  artillery  of  the  twentieth  region: 
Six  field  batteries  of  the  twenty-fifth  regiment ;  6  of  the  for- 
tieth ;  9  of  the  thirty-ninth ;  2  horse  batteries  of  the  fourth 
division  of  cavalry;  total,  23  batteries. 

Series  3. — From  June  30  to  July  31 :  Four  field  batteries  of 
the  second  battalion  of  foot  artillery ;  G  batteries  of  the  fourth 
battalion ;  5  of  the  fifth ;  5  of  the  sixth ;  6  of  the  seventh ;  G  of 
the  eighth;  7  of  the  ninth;  (3  of  the  sixteenth;  total,  45  bat- 
teries. 

WORK   AT   THE   CAMPS   OF   INSTRUCTION. 

As  before  stated,  all  the  target  practice  using  real  projec- 
tiles takes  place  on  the  polygon,  or  camp  of  instruction,  at 
the  disposal  of  the  regiment  concerned.  The  general  com- 
manding the  artillery  of  each  army  corps  has  the  direction 


70  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

of  tlie  practice  of  the  troops  of  his  corps  at  the  camps  as  well 
as  in  their  garrisons.  The  minister  of  war  designates  each 
year  the  camp  at  which  each  regiment  will  perform  its  target 
practice.  A  regiment  of  field  artillery  puts  in  twenty-five 
days  at  its  camp. 

Generals  whose  commands  comprise  artillery,  brigadier 
generals  who  in  all  likelihood  will  reach  such  commands,  and 
certain  staff  ofiicers,  are  permitted  to  attend  and  be  instructed 
at  these  exercises. 

It  may  be  said  in  general  that  the  instruction  of  the  field 
artillery  in  target  practice  is  most  businesslike  and  thorough, 
and  that  one  object  alone  is  kept  in  view,  viz,  to  get  quickly 
into  action  after  thoughtful  and  exact  preparation,  and  then 
to  reach  the  target  immediately.  The  education  to  this  end 
is  minute,  but  not  a  projectile  is^  fired  in  practice  until  the 
theoretical  instruction  and  the  fire  drills  (1  a,  h,  c,  d)  have 
taught  every  grade  what  he  is  to  do  and  how  to  do  it  with 
calmness  and  confidence.  From  the  very  start  of  the  prepara- 
tory instruction  to  the  war  practice  of  masses  of  artillery, 
one  guiding  principle  is  evident :  to  teach  the  artillery  how 
to  quickly  select  and  suddenly  reach  its  proper  target ;  all 
work,  however  pretty  or  interesting,  which  does  not  point 
directly  to  this  end  is  omitted  or  minimized. 

If  practically  the  whole  time  of  the  artillery  is  taken  up  in 
teaching  it  to  shoot,  the  government  does  not  spare  expense 
in  material  or  ammunition.  Besides  the  cost  of  maintaining 
the  camps  and  sending  the  regiments  to  them,  there  is  a  large 
bill  for  ammunition  fired  each  year.  Every  gun  is  allowed 
about  100  rounds  per  annum  of  war  ammunition  for  target 
practice  (2  a  and  b) ;  in  addition  to  this  there  is  allowed  a 
considerable  extra  expenditure  for  (1)  the  instruction  of 
officers  who  would  become  captains  of  reserve  batteries  upon 
mobilization;  (2)  for  reservists  and  territorials,  and  (3)  for 
the  war  practice  of  masses  at  Chalons. 

Each  gun  is  allowed  about  75  petards  and  8  blank  car- 
tridges per  year  for  instruction  purposes,  as  well  as  an  ample 
supply  of  dummy  cartridges  and  projectiles. 

SCHOOLS  AND  BOARDS   OF   ARTILLERY   TARGET   PRACTICE. 

From  what  has  preceded,  it  will  be  evident  that  all  the 
camps  of  instruction,  and  especially  the  one  at  Chalons,  are 
practical  schools  for  studying  and  teaching  artillery  target 


FRANCE.  71 

practice ;  moreover,  at  the  Artillery  School  of  Application  at 
Fontaiiiebleau  this  subject  naturally  receives  considerable 
attention  both  theoretically  and  practically  (the  school  has 
its  own  polygon) ;  but  besides  these  establishments  there  sits 
at  Poitiers  a  board  for  testing  artillery,  which  is  charged  with 
examining  the  best  methods  to  employ  in  the  fire  of  field, 
siege,  and  seacoast  artillery.  At  the  same  place,  and  using 
in  part  the  personnel  of  this  board,  is  established  the  practi- 
cal course  in  artillery  fire  whose  object  is  to  exercise  captains 
of  artillery  (chiefly  seniors)  in  the  rigid  application  of  the 
accepted  methods  of  fire  of  their  arm,  and  also  to  give  them, 
as  far  as  is  possible,  on  the  polygon  of  Bourges,  instrnction 
in  the  methods  in  use  for  siege  and  seacoast  artillery  fire. 

There  are  three  courses  during  the  year,  each  two  months 
in  length,  as  follows:  From  February  15  to  April  15,  from 
April  16  to  June  16,  and  from  September  15  to  November  15. 
The  student  oflicers  are  sent  in  classes  of  20  or  30,  and  remain 
for  two  months.  For  the  second  month  of  each  course  a  cer- 
tain number  of  field  officers  are  sent  to  the  school  to  be  exer- 
cised in  organizing,  directing,  and  criticising  the  conduct  of 
target  practice  of  several  batteries  united. 

The  instructors  of  these  courses  consist  of  a  director  (colonel 
or  lieutenant  colonel)  and  three  field  officers  or  captains ;  there 
is  permanently  attached  to  the  institution  one  foot  battery ; 
a  field  battery  from  the  garrison  of  Poitiers  is  available  when 
needed. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   GUNNERS.      RECOMPENSES. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  preparatory  exercises,  and  before 
the  actual  target  practice  begins,  the  captain  holds  a  competi- 
tion, first,  among  men  already  qualified  as  first-class  gunners 
(maitres  pointeurs) ;  second,  among  the  rest  of  the  men  for 
the  class  of  gunner  (pointeur).* 

*  Since  the  above  was  written  a  new  regulation  has  been  published  on 
the  subject  of  classification  and  recompenses  for  gunners  in  the  field 
artillery.  It  prescribes  that  each  year,  when  the  instruction  has  been 
completed,  and  before  or  during  the  annual  target  practice,  according  to 
circumstances,  the  colonel  will  appoint  a  board  to  hold  a  competition  in 
aiming  among  the  batteries  of  the  regiment. 

Each  captain  selects  a  gun  detachment  commanded  by  a  sergeant.  Men 
•who  are  already  first-class  gunners  are  not  selected. 

The  same  piece  is  used  by  all  detachments. 

Three  tests  are  given  to  each  detachment.  Time  and  accuracy  form 
the  basis  of  the  marks.     The  tests  are  prescribed  with  great  detail,  but 


72  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  competition  is  wholly  practical  and  consists  of  aiming  the 
piece  six  separate  times  at  an  indistinct  target  at  2,000  yards; 
the  accuracy  of  each  laying  is  determined  by  an  instrument. 
Each  trial  is  given  a  mark  according  to  accuracy  and  time 
taken ;  to  this  is  added  the  captain's  appreciation  of  the  man's 
ability.     The  results  establish  the  provisional  list  of  gunners. 

After  the  target  practice  season,  when  the  captain  has  been 
able  to  judge  of  the  gunners'  abilities,  he  makes  an  additional 
note  to  the  list  before  made,  and  establishes  the  annual  classi- 
fication of  gunners  (first  and  second  class)  in  the  battery. 

In  each  regiment  there  is  a  competition  at  the  close  of  the 
target  season  among  the  first-class  gunners  chosen,  one  from 
each  battery.  There  are  money  prizes  awarded,  and  also  the 
first  three  are  allowed  to  wear  a  grenade  embroidered  in  gold 
on  the  left  sleeve.  All  first-class  gunners  wear  a  grenade 
in  red  cloth  on  the  left  sleeve.  The  names  and  grading  of 
gunners  are  published  as  in  the  infantry. 

ARTILLERY  SHOOTING    CLUBS. 

Another  evidence  of  the  fostering  care  of  the  French  govern- 
ment in  the  matter  of  artillery  shooting  is  found  in  the 
"societ^s  de  tir  au  canon"  which  have  been  formed  of  reserve 
or  territorial  officers  and  even  civilians.  These  clubs  are 
encouraged  in  every  way;  cannon  and  ranges  lent  them, 
ammunition  given  or  sold  at  nominal  rates,  prizes  and  honors 
conferred,  etc.  It  can  not  be  said  with  any  accuracy  what 
the  practical  results  may  be,  but  these  clubs  keep  up  an 
interest  in  artillery  shooting,  and  are  an  evidence  of  the 
feeling  on  the  subject. 

they  can  not  be  understood  without  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  sight 
and  the  aiming  mechanism  of  the  75-centiraeter  gun,  and  are  therefore 
not  reproduced  here. 

The  detachments  are  classified  in  order  of  merit.  For  every  regiment 
there  are  accorded  4  grenades  embroidered  in  gold,  which  are  given  to 
the  pointers  of  the  batteries  standing  1,  2,  3,  and  4  on  the  merit  roll. 

Shooting-Competition. — At  the  close  of  the  target  season  there  is  held 
in  each  regiment  a  shooting-competition  among  the  batteries.  Each  cap- 
tain designates  a  detachment  commanded  by  a  sergeant  to  represent  the 
battery.  The  conditions  are  minutely  prescribed,  and  the  value  to  be 
given  to  each  result.  Each  detachment  fires  3  shots,  and  the  classification 
ensues  from  the  results  obtained.  The  prizes  are  in  money :  first  prize 
about  S6,  second  §4,  third  §2.  The  prize  is  di\dded  among  the  men  of  the 
detachment  winning  it. 


FRANCE.  73 

SIEGE    AND    SEACOAST   ARTILLERY. 

The  method  of  procedure  in  teaching  target  practice  to  the 
personnel  of  the  siege  and  seacoast  artillery  is  the  same  as 
that  outlined  above  for  field  artillery,  taking  into  account 
the  differences  in  the  material  and  the  problems  of  fire. 

The  instruction  begins  at  the  garrison  with  indoor  work  for 
officers  and  sergeants  in  the  use  of  instruments,  and  the  solving 
of  fire  problems. 

The  instructor  proceeds  with  practical  exercises  and  mental 
drills  on  the  lines  already  explained  until  fictitious  fire  prob- 
lems can  be  solved  on  sight ;  then  work  of  the  whole  personnel 
at  the  guns  with  all  the  instruments  and  combat  elements, 
simulated  fire  and  the  observation  of  fire,  bring  the  instruction 
up  to  the  time  for  actual  practice  at  targets.  This  target 
practice  for  the  battalions  of  foot  artillery  manning  siege  and 
land-fort  guns  takes  place  at  the  polygons  or  camps  already 
described.  All  the  problems  of  attack  and  defense  of  siege 
and  fortress  artillery  are  there  worked  out  and  illustrated ; 
direct  and  indirect  fire,  attack  by  night  with  elements  of  fire 
obtained  in  the  day,  etc.  The  men  not  serving  the  guns  are 
required  to  be  present  and  observe  the  conduct  and  effects  of 
the  fire.  Each  battalion  (6  companies)  passes  about  three 
weeks  of  every  year  at  its  camp  and  expends  about  450  rounds 
of  war  ammunition,  besides  the  petards,  blank  rounds,  etc., 
used  in  instruction  in  its  garrison. 

The  battalions  stationed  at  coast  forts  receive  the  prepar- 
atory instruction  outlined  above,  and  when  money  and  other 
considerations  make  it  possible,  are  also  sent  for  the  practical 
firing  at  a  polygon.  Their  target  XJractice  with  great  guns 
takes  place  in  the  harbor  they  garrison.  The  preparatory 
firings  by  piece  at  fixed  targets  teach  the  men  the  drill  of  the 
piece  under  service  conditions,  and  illustrate  the  problems  of 
fire  they  have  been  theoretically  solving.  The  rest  of  the 
firing,  the  whole  battery  or  group  of  batteries  in  action, 
progresses  to  conditions  as  near  those  of  actual  war  as  the 
locality  and  equipment  make  possible.  Every  post  is  occupied, 
the  complete  range-finder  service  assured,  the  mine  defense 
manned,  and  communication  established  with  the  coast  torpedo- 
boat  defense.  The  target  is  towed  in  the  field  of  fire  where- 
ever  an  enemy  would  be  likely  to  go.  This  target  generally 
consists  of  two  catamarans  of  about  the  shape  and  dimensions 
given  in  the  sketch,  joined  by  a  towline  about  300  feet  long. 


74 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Each  catamaran  consists  of  tliree  timbers  about  40  feet  long 
and  12  by  12  inches  in  section,  braced  together  by  iron  rods 
as  shown. 

The  center  log  supports  a  light  wooden  frame  on  which  is 
stretched  canvas  painted  in  black  and  white  blocks  as  indi- 
cated. 


Plan. 


Fiq.  18. 


The  observation  of  the  fall  of  the  shot  with  this  target  is 
very  easily  made. 

On  page  71  reference  was  made  to  the  courses  in  artillery 
fire  at  Poitiers;  the  instruction  at  that  place  also  includes 
siege  and  fortress  artillery.  A  course  for  coast  artillery  is 
established  for  three  weeks  every  year  under  similar  condi- 
tions in  one  of  the  great  fortified  harbors,  generally  at  Toulon. 
The  officers  designated  to  take  this  course  are  generally  those 
who  would  have  a  coast  command  in  case  of  mobilization. 
The  battalion  of  foot  artillery  at  Toulon  furnishes  the  men  for 
this  work. 

It  is  not  believed  that  the  instruction  in  target  practice  of 
the  French  coast  artillery  is  as  efficient  and  up  to  date  as  that 
of  the  field  and  (perhaps)  garrison  artillery.  In  the  first 
place,  since  1871,  the  French  have  been  ardently  occupied  in 
perfecting  their  field  and  frontier  fortress  artillery,  and  the 
coast  artillery  has  generally  come  in  for  second  place.  The 
events  of  1898  directed  more  attention  to  the  coast  works,  and 
the  completion  of  the  new  armament  for  the  field  artillery 
has  withdrawn  a  serious  burden  from  the  war  budget ;  there- 
fore it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  activity  in  construction  of 
the  last  three  years  is  not  to  be  dropped  and  other  improve- 
ments in  the  coast  artillery  will  doubtless  follow. 


FRANCE.  75 

Also,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  great  many  of  the  coast  forts 
are  garrisoned  wholly  or  in  part  by  infantry,  who  perform 
the  service  of  the  guns  in  addition  to  their  other  work ;  hence, 
target  practice  at  these  works  is  not  what  it  should  be.  Of 
the  108  batteries  of  foot  artillery  only  42  man  the  coast  de- 
fenses. The  colonial  (formerly  marine)  artillery  furnishes  28 
more  batteries  and  6  companies  of  workmen  for  this  service ; 
in  other  words,  on  a  peace  footing  there  are  hardly  500  officers 
and  10,000  trained  artillerymen  to  man  the  coast  defenses  of 
the  whole  country.  When  it  is  remembered  that  it  would 
probably  require  5,000  men  to  furnish  one  relief  for  the  guns 
of  Brest  or  Toulon  alone,  the  lack  of  technical  personnel  is 
evident.  These  reasons  seem  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
fact  that  target  practice  in  the  coast  artillery  is  not  so  thor- 
ough as  it  is  in  the  field  artillery ;  and  yet  the  allowance  of 
ammunition  for  practice  with  the  great  guns  is,  from  our 
standpoint,  enormously  liberal. 


IV.-GERMANY. 

[From  translations  of  official  firing  rt'sulations  lurnisiicd  by  Lieut.  Col.  James  B.  Kerr,  Ninth  Cav- 
alry, United  States  Military  Attache  at  Uerlin,  ami  from  other  official  sources,  comjiared  and 
arranged  by  Capt.  E.  A.  Edwards,  Twenty-fifth  Infantry.] 


INFANTRY. 


The  course  of  instruction  for  the  German  infantry  soldier 
comprises  preparatory  instruction  and  exercises,  range  firing, 
and  field  (combat)  firing.  To  these  may  be  added  instruction 
or  demonstration  firing,  and  examination  firing. 

The  course  is  designed  to  train  the  infantry  soldier  in  the 
efficient  use  of  the  rifle  in  battle,  and  the  importance  of  the 
subject  requires  that  the  exercises  be  conducted  with  great 
exactness,  and  so  directed  that  at  the  end  of  his  first  year  of 
service  the  soldier  shall  be  trained  to  use  his  rifle  in  actual 
warfare.  In  subsequent  years  the  knowledge  acquired  is 
completed  and  strengthened. 

The  captain  is  primarily  responsible  for  the  instruction  of 
his  company ;  he  is  assisted  by  the  officers  and  noncommis- 
sioned officers,  who  are  expected  to  have  a  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  theory  of  fire  and  practical  skill  sufficient  to 
regulate  defective  rifles,  besides  having  a  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  duties  of  their  grades  in  the  direction 
of  fire  in  action.  If  convenient,  the  captain  may  direct  special 
practice  for  the  noncommissioned  officers. 

The  battalion  and  regimental  commanders,  while  respecting 
the  initiative  of  company  commanders,  supervise  the  instruc- 
tion, more  particularly  the  field  and  instruction  firing.  They 
may  direct  special  practice  for  officers,  and  generally  snould 
keep  themselves  informed  of  the  aptitude  and  efficiency  of 
the  various  instructors. 

Higher  officers  in  their  inspections  see  that  the  instruction 
has  been  properly  conducted,  and  by  directing  special  exer- 
cises can  compare  the  firing  efficiency  of  the  various  troop 
units.     The  results  are  not  published. 

PREPARATORY   INSTRUCTION. 

The  instructor  first  explains  to  the  recruit  in  simple  lan- 
guage how  the  shot  is  fired,  the  use  of  the  sights,  principles 
of  aiming,  the  different  kinds  of  targets,  etc.     The  recruit  is 


78 


TARGET  PRACTICE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


drilled  in  a  variety  of  movements  of  the  arms  and  body,  "with, 
and  without  the  rifle,  designed  to  give  strength  and  ease  of 
movement  to  the  joints  and  muscles  used  in  aiming,  care 
being  taken  to  avoid  undue  fatigue  or  weariness.  This  is 
followed  by  position,  pointing  and  aiming  drills,  at  first  with 
rests,  afterwards  offhand,  standing,  kneeling,  and  lying, 
behind  entrenchments,  rifle  pits,  or  trees,  aiming  at  targets. 
During  this  period  the  recruit  is  also  practiced  in  estimating 
distances,  the  course  concluding  with  the  firing  of  blank  car- 
tridges aiming  at  targets,  and  with  gallery  practice. 

GALLERY   PRACTICE. 

This  may  be  conducted  in  rooms,  halls,  barrack  yards,  or 
on  open  drill  grounds,  and  is  usually  directed  by  an  experi- 
enced noncommissioned  officer.  The  rifle  or  carbine  used 
resembles  the  ordinary  service  weapon,  into  which  is  inserted 
a  smaller  barrel  of  aluminum  bronze  of  a  caliber  of  5  milli- 
meters.    Reduced  targets  are  used,  so  that  at  5  meters  the 


6.0  cm.- 

Fig.  2. 

appearance  of  the  target  and  the  probability  of  a  hit  are 
about  the  same  as  with  the  regular  target  and  rifle  at  100 
meters.  The  bullet  used  in  the  gallery-practice  target  will, 
at  5  meters,  penetrate  from  3  to  2^  inches  into  soft  wood,  and 
has  an  extreme  range  of  80  meters. 

Targets  for  gallery  practice  are  shown  in  figs.  1  and  2. 


GERMANY.  79 

For  the  first  instruction  a  target  of  white  ground,  marked 
as  shown  in  fig.  2,  is  recommended. 

Until  the  recruit  has  attained  proficiency  in  the  prepara- 
tory course  he  is  not  allowed  to  fire  with  ball  cartridges. 
Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  eyesight  and  visual  defects 
are  to  be  promptly  reported,  so  that  if  necessary  the  surgeon 
may  prescribe  the  glasses  to  be  worn. 

The  judicious  choice  of  positions,  use  of  cover,  correct  esti- 
mate of  distances,  rapid  loading,  proper  adjustment  of  sights, 
rapid  and  correct  aiming,  are  qualities  that  require  to  be  fre- 
quently exercised  and  are  indispensable  to  the  efficient  use  of 
the  rifle  in  action.  The  pointing  and  aiming  exercises  are 
therefore  to  be  continued  during  the  whole  service  of  the  sol- 
dier, but  they  must  never  be  too  long  continued,  and  are  to 
be  executed  strictly  with  a  view  to  maintaining  efficiency. 

ESTIMATING   DISTANCES. 

Instruction  in  estimating  distances  is  carried  on  during  the 
same  time  as  that  of  the  preparatory  instruction  in  the  use  of 
the  rifle.  Men  are  expected  to  be  able  to  estimate  correctly 
distances  up  to  600  meters ;  officers,  noncommissioned  officers, 
and  skilled  privates  up  to  1,000  meters,  and  are  exercised  in 
estimating  even  greater  distances.  Officers  are  required  to 
be  able  to  read,  correctly  and  readily,  distances  on  large-scale 
maps. 

The  training  is  progressive,  units  of  distance  being  fixed  in 
the  mind  by  pacing  and  observation,  and  the  eye  trained  by 
frequent  practice  in  different  conditions  of  surface,  light,  etc. 

RANGE   FIRING. 

In  these  exercises  officers  and  men  are  expected  to  acquire 
and  maintain  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency,. so  as  to  be 
skilled  in  the  use  of  the  rifle  in  all  positions,  but  this,  while 
important,  is  to  be  regarded  only  as  a  preparation  for  field 
firing.  Firing  at  known  distances  being  necessary  for 
thorough  instruction,  relatively  more  time  and  ammunition 
are  properly  devoted  to  those  exercises. 

The  progressive  development  of  the  course  necessitates  the 
division  of  those  firing  into  classes.  The  second  class  consists 
of  all  men  in  their  first  year  of  service,  and  men  of  longer 
service  who  have  not  qualified  for  the  first  class.  The  first 
class  includes  the  men  who  have  made  the  scores  required  in 


80  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

the  second  class.  A  special  class  is  formed,  consisting  of  oflB- 
cers,  noncommissioned  officers,  and  reenlisted  men,  who  have 
twice  qualified  in  the  first  class.  The  classification  is  made 
at  the  end  of  the  practice  year  by  the  battalion  commander 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  company  commander. 

Poor  shots  must  be  sent  back  to  the  preparatory  exercises, 
and  the  company  commander  must  personally  see  that  they 
are  sufficiently  instructed  before  allowing  them  to  resume 
firing  with  ball  cartridges,  but  turning  back  is  to  be  avoided 
witli  men  in  the  higher  classes,  who  should  have  special  at- 
tention when  they  have  difficulty  in  making  the  scores 
required  in  their  class. 

The  target  year  is  from  October  1  to  September  30  follow- 
ing, and  is  named  after  the  year  in  which  it  terminates.  All 
officers  and  men  of  the  company  join  in  the  practice  unless 
prevented  by  absence.  As  a  rule,  in  all  firings  men  fire  with 
their  own  rifles  and  are  required  to  go  through  all  the  exer- 
cises prescribed  for  their  class  during  the  year.  This  may 
necessitate  advancing  to  higher  ranges  men  who  have  repeat- 
edly failed  in  the  preceding  exercises.  The  firings  at  300,  400, 
500,  and  600  meters  may  take  place  out  of  their  order  if  the 
conditions  of  the  range  require  it,  but  if  possible  this  must  be 
avoided  with  men  of  the  second  class,  who  should  also  qualify 
in  their  preliminary  firing  before  commencing  their  regular 
practice. 

The  preliminary  practice  must  be  conducted  with  the  great- 
est exactness  and  attention  to  detail.  The  instructor  corrects 
faults  as  they  occur.  Frequently  this  must  be  done  while  the 
rifle  is  in  position,  and  the  correction  must  be  made  briefly 
and  calmly  so  as  not  to  tire  the  recruit  or  make  him  nervous. 

Men  whose  sight,  even  with  the  aid  of  glasses,  is  less  than 
three-fourths  of  the  normal,  may  be  authorized  by  the  bat- 
talioii  commander  to  go  through  the  firings  at  reduced  dis- 
tances. These  men  are  to  be  examined  each  year  before  the 
firing  exercises  commence,  and  are  debarred  from  promotion 
to  a  higher  class.  Fine  weather  should  be  selected  for  prac- 
tice, especially  for  recruits. 

Not  more  than  two  qualifying  scores  should  be  fired  on  one 
practice  day,  nor  less  than  the  number  of  shots  prescribed 
for  one  exercise.  A  qualifying  score  will  be  considered  as 
made,  when  the  last  3  or  5  shots  have  the  required  value. 


GERMANY. 


81 


When  the  required  score  is  made  in  less  than  3  or  5  shots, 
the  other  shots  in  the  score  will  be  fired  nevertheless. 

An  immoderate  number  of  cartridges  must  not  be  allowed 
to  poor  shots  to  enable  them  to  make  the  required  scores. 
Except  in  special  cases,  the  supplementary  allowance  will  not 
exceed  the  number  prescribed  for  the  preliminary  or  regular 
practice  in  which  engaged. 

TARGETS. 

The  frames  are  of  wood  covered  with  pasteboard  or  cloth. 
The  following  patterns  are  used  in  range  firing : 
The  ring  target  (fig.  3).     The  dimensions  are  shown  in  the 
illustration.     The  diameter  of  the  inner  circle  No.  12  is  10 
centimeters ;  the  diameters  of  the  rings  from  the  center  out- 
ward   increase    by  10    centimeters.     Rings    10   and  11    are 


Fig.  3. — Ring  target. 


Fig.  4. 


black  and  with  12  constitute  the  bull's-eye.  A  vertical  black 
band  6  centimeters  wide  runs  through  the  middle,  interrupted 
at  the  bull's-eye.  The  division  between  rings  10  and  11  is 
marked  in  red,  the  line  of  the  rings  from  1  to  9  may  be  marked 
in  pencil  where  they  pass  through  the  vertical  band. 

The  figure  target  (fig.  4)  and  its  varieties,  the  head,  bust, 
trunk,  and  knee  targets  of  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration.    The  figure  is  a  colored  representation  of  an  infantry 


82 


TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


soldier,   tlie  equipments  and   trousers  of  dark  shade.     The 
details  of  the  face,  dress  and  equipment  need  not  he  shown. 


'  ezs 


Fig.  5. 


Combined  ring  and  figure  targets,  ring-liead  and  ring-bust, 
(fig.  5).  The  head  or  bust  target  is  pasted  on  a  ring  target 
of  gray  pasteboard  so  that  the  middle  vertical  line  of  the 


1.T0 


60^ 


)  50 


>  70 


>50 


200 
Fig.  6. — Section  400-meier  targets. 

figure  coincides  with  that  of  the  ring  target.     The  lower  edge 
of  the  head  target  is  67.5  centimeters  and  that  of  the  bust 


GERMANY. 


83 


target  70  centimeters  from  the  bottom  of  the  ring  target.  The 
lines  of  the  rings  are  marked  in  red,  where  they  pass  through 
the  figure.  Rings  10  and  11  are  not  blacked  and  the  vertical 
band  is  omitted. 

Section  -lOO-meter  targets  (fig.  6).  Three  bust  targets  are 
pasted  on  a  target  of  gray  pasteboard  or  cloth  covered  with 
gray  paper  as  indicated.  The  horizontal  lines  dividing  the 
target  into  three  bands  marked  in  red  are  not  visible  at  the 
firing  point. 

The  section  500-meter  and  600-meter  targets  are  the  same 
as  that  for  400  meters,  except  that  the  widths  of  the  bands 
vary.    The  central  band  for  500  meters  is  102  centimeters,  for 


J!. 


200  cm. 

Fig.  7. — Section-figure  target. 

600  meters  130  centimeters;   the  outer  bands  are  34  centi- 
meters and  20  centimeters,  respectively.     The  central  band 

is  known  as  No.  2,  the  outer 
bands  as  No.  1. 

Section-figure  target  (fig.  7) . 
The    figures    are    the    full 
height  of  the  target. 

For  fire,  standing  with  rest, 
a  support  shown  in  fig.  8  is 
used.  The  notches,  of  which  there  are  30,  are  numbered  for 
convenience  in  finding  each  man's  position  of  rest. 


Fig.  8. — Gun  rest. 


84  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Each  battalion  receives  a  money  allowance  for  target- 
practice  material  allotted  under  this  head  in  the  annual 
estimates. 

VALUE  OF   HITS. 

On  the  ring,  ring-head,  and  ring-bust  targets,  from  1  to  12, 
according  to  the  number  of  the  ring  struck. 

On  the  section  targets  (400,  500,  and  600  meters)  all  direct 
hits  in  the  center  band,  either  in  the  figures  or  in  the  inter- 
vals, count  2,  hits  in  the  outer  bands  count  1. 

On  the  section-figure  target  all  direct  hits  either  in  the  fig- 
ures or  in  the  intervals  are  counted  1. 

The  location  of  ricochet  shots  is  first  shown  by  placing  the 
disk  over  them,  and  they  are  then  signaled  as  misses  by  wav- 
ing the  disk  in  front  of  the  target. 

The  value  of  the  hits  is  shown  by  rectangular  tablets  on 
which  the  figures  from  1  to  6  are  in  black  on  white  ground, 
the  Roman  character  V  being  used  instead  of  tlie  figure  5; 
from  7  to  12  the  figures  are  in  white  on  a  black  ground,  10 
being  indicated  by  a  white  circle,  11  by  a  vertical  white  band, 
and  12  by  two  white  squares  placed  diagonally  on  the  tablet. 
A  white  cross  indicates  a  hit  in  the  target  outside  the  rings. 

Grooves  are  arranged  in  the  marker's  shelters,  in  which  the 
signals  are  made  to  slide  in  and  out  of  view.  They  are  manip- 
ulated under  the  direction  of  the  noncommissioned  officer  at 
the  butt, 

ALLOWANCE   OF  AMMUNITION. 

Of  the  ammunition  allowed  to  each  company  there  are 
reserved : 

1.  For  field  firing,  60  rounds  per  man  of  the  effective 
strength  on  which  the  allowance  is  based. 

2.  For  special  practice  of  officers,  500  rounds. 

3.  For  instruction  firing,  at  least  200  rounds. 

4.  For  competitive  firing,  15  rounds  for  each  officer  and 
noncommissioned  officer. 

5.  For  special  practice  prescribed  by  higher  authorities,  12 
rounds  for  each  noncommissioned  officer  and  private.  This 
number  must  not  be  exceeded. 

Cartridges  are  allowed  for  testing  and  regulating  rifles. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  target  year  a  general  testing  and  regu- 
lating of  all  arms  issued  to  recruits  is  recommended.  The 
remainder  of  the  allowance  is  used  for  range  firing.  No  sav- 
ings should  be  made  in  the   allowance   for  field  firing,  for 


GERMANY. 


85 


special  practice  of  officers,  or  for  instruction  firing.  If,  how- 
ever, there  should  be  any,  the  cartridges  will  be  used  for  field 
firing  in  the  following  year. 

Savings  made  in  the  allowance  for  testing  and  regulating, 
and  under  heads  4  and  5  supra,  will  be  used  for  supplementary 
target  practice,  special  exercises  for  noncommissioned  officers, 
field  firing,  and  lastly  for  competitive  firing  by  privates. 


RANGE   FIRING. 


The  firing  is  divided  into  preliminary  and  regular  practice 
for  each  class,  as  follows : 


Second  class. 


PRELIMINARY    PRACTICE,    THREE   SHOTS   AT    EACH    RANGE. 


No. 

Range. 

Position. 

Target. 

Qualifying  score. 

1 

Mtlers. 
150 
1.50 
150 
200 
2(K) 
200 

Standing,  with  rest     _ 

King 

do      .. 

3 

Prone,  with  rest 

4 

Prone 

do 

5 

Kneeling 

Do 

fi 

King   _ 

Do 

REGULAR    PRACTICE,    FIVE   SHOTS   AT    EACH    RANGE. 


150 
200 

300 
300 
400 
400 
500 
600 
30O 


Prone,  with  rest  . 

Proue 

Prone,  with  rest  . 

Kneeling 

Prone 

Kneeling 

Prone 

Kneeling 

Standing 


Bust 

Trunk 

Ring-head 

Ring-bust 

Section,  400  meters. 

Section  figure 

Section,  500  meters- 
Section,  600  meters. 
Section  figure 


3  hits  in  figure. 

Do. 
5  hits,  25  points. 
5  hits,  20  points. 

4  hits,  6  points. 
4  hits. 

3  hits,  4  points. 

2  hits,  3  points. 

3  hits. 


In  the  sixth  practice  5  shots  are  fired  in  one  minute,  and  in 
the  ninth  practice  the  shots  are  fired  in  thirty  seconds,  in  each 
case  commencing  with  two  cartridges  in  the  clip  or  magazine, 
accordinsr  to  model  of  rifle  used. 


First  class. 


PRELIMINARY    PRACTICE,  THREE    SHOT,S    AT    EACH    RANGE. 


No. 

Range. 

Position. 

Target. 

Qualifying  score. 

1 

Meters. 
150 
150 
200 
200 

3  hits  all  above  8. 

3 

.      do                            .     ._. 

3  hits  all  above  6. 

?. 

.      do      -      _  .              -     _ 

do' 

4 

Prone     ... 

Do. 

86  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

First  class — Continued. 

REULLAR   PRACriCE,   FIVE    SHOTS    AT    EACH    RANGE. 


Ko. 

Eangf. 

r..sitinn. 

Target. 

Qualifying  score. 

1 

Meters. 
150 
200 
300 
300 
400 
500 
600 
300 

Head 

'I 

Bust  _       

Do. 

S 

Prone,  with  lest 

5  hits,  30  points. 
5  hits,  25  points. 
5  hits,  7  i>oints. 

4 

.1 

6 

T 

Section,  GOO  meters 

Section  figure 

Do. 

8 

Kneeliug 

4  hits. 

Practice  No.  8  is  the  same  a.s  the  ninth  practice  in  the 
second  class. 

Special  class. 

rREI.IJIlXARY    IM'.ArTU'E,  THREE    SHUTS    AT    EACH    RANliE. 


No. 

Kange. 

Position. 

Target. 

(Qualifying  si 

ore. 

1 

Meiers. 
150 
1.50 
200 
200 

Standing,  with  rest 

do 

3  bull's-eyes. 
3  hits  above  7. 
3  hits  above  6. 
Do. 

9 

do 

8 

do      .  . 

do 

4 

Kneeling 

King-bust 

RE(iri,Ar.  riiACTicE,  f'Ive  shots  at   EACH   i;am;e. 


1 

150 

200 
300 
300 
400 
500 
COO 
300 

Prone,  with  rest 

Head                     ._       

v 

Bust    -  .     - 

Do. 

3 

Prone,  with  rest 

5  hits,  35  points. 

4 

Ring-bust 

Section,  400  meters 

5  hits,  30  points. 

5 

5  hits,  S  ]i()ints. 

(3 

7 

Section,  (iiMl  meters 

Do. 

8 

do 

5  hits. 

The  eighth  practice  is  the  same  as  the  ninth  practice  in  tlie 
second  class. 

SERVICE  ON   THE   R.\NGE. 

Signaling,  Marking,  and  Scoring. — A  noncommissioned 
officer  and  three  men  from  the  firing  company  are  at  each 
target.  The  noncommissioned  officer  is  responsible  for  the 
correct  signaling  and  marking  of  each  shot,  severe  penalties 
being  prescribed  by  the  military  penal  code  for  intentional 
falsification. 

When  a  shot  is  fired  the  target  is  withdrawn,  the  shot  hole 
marked  with  a  pencil,  and  the  value  signaled  to  the  firing 
point  by  exposing  the  proper  signal  at  the  side,  or  on  top.  of 
the  marker's  shelter,  according  as  the  shelter  is  on  the  side 
of  or  below  the  target.     The  location  of  the  hit  on  the  target 


GERMANY.  87 

is  shown  by  placing  the  disk  over  the  shot  hole  for  a  moment 
after  the  target  is  returned  to  position.  This  proceeding  is 
repeated  after  each  shot,  the  last  hit  being  marked  in  pencil, 
and  the  preceding  one  then  pasted  up.  The  marking  party 
is  relieved  every  two  hours.  At  the  firing  point  a  noncom- 
missioned officer  is  charged  with  the  arrangements  necessary 
for  the  practice.  He  sees  that  the  ammunition,  targets,  and 
other  material  are  provided,  assigns  markers,  scorers,  etc.  A 
noncommissioned  officer  or  competent  private  may  be  detailed 
to  keep  the  scores. 

Before  firing  commences  the  officer  in  charge  sees  that 
everything  is  in  order,  he  inspects  the  targets,  noting  the 
number  of  shot  holes  already  pasted  up ;  he  directs  the  prac- 
tice, oversees  the  work  of  the  markers  and  scorers,  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  firing  he  examines  the  targets,  counts  the 
number  of  hits,  comparing  them  with  the  scores,  and  certifies 
over  his  signature  to  the  correctness  of  the  record,  and  to  the 
amount  of  ammunition  expended.  The  officer  is  assisted  by 
one  or  more  noncommissioned  officers,  and  all  are  relieved 
every  two  hours. 

The  men  are  marched  to  the  range  under  arms,  wearing  for 
preliminary  practice,  cap,  belt,  and  cartridge-pouches ;  during 
the  regular  practice,  the  helmet,  belt,  and  cartridge-boxes 
are  worn,  the  knapsack  packed  or  empty  as  may  be  pre- 
scribed, cooking  utensils,  and  overcoat  carried  as  on  the 
march.  Arms  are  inspected  before  and  after  all  firings.  The 
bayonet  is  not  fixed  during  the  practice. 

The  firing  detachment,  as  a  rule  not  more  than  five  men  to 
each  target,  forms  in  rear  of  the  firing  point,  and  each  man 
steps  in  turn  to  the  firing  point,  delivers  his  shot,  and  returns 
to  his  place  in  ranks.  The  scorer  observes  the  signal  from 
the  target  and  calls  out  the  name  of  the  firer  and  the  result 
of-  the  shot,  which  is  immediately  entered  in  ink  on  the  com- 
pany record  and  in  the  small  target-record  book  carried  by 
each  soldier. 

BADGES. 

To  the  best  shots  badges  are  distributed  annually  as  follows : 
To  the  noncommissioned  officers  and  reenlisted  men  of  each 
company,  o;  to  the  men  of  each  company  in  battalions  of 
higher  strength,  8  for  the  first  class  and  5  for  the  second 
class;  in  the  battalions  of  lower  strength,  7  and  5,  respec- 
tively ;  to  noncommissioned  officers  and  reenlisted  men  of  the 


88  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

instruction  battalion,  3 ;  and  to  the  men  of  the  first  class,  20. 

Badges  are  also  allowed  to  noncommissioned  officers  and 
reenlisted  men  serving  at  recruiting  depots. 

In  the  competitions  for  these  insignia  only  men  who  have 
fully  qualified  in  their  respective  classes  are  considered.  The 
badges  are  assigned  to  those  who  qualified  with  the  least 
number  of  shots ;  if  these  be  equal,  to  those  making  the  most 
bull's-eyes  and  hits  in  the  figure,  and,  lastly,  to  the  highest 
number  of  points. 

Men  who  obtain  badges  receive  with  them  a  certificate  from 
the  company  commander,  and  notation  of  the  same  is  made 
on  descriptive  books  and  discharge  papers.  The  badge  is 
forfeited  by  reduction  to  a  lower  class,  but  is  restored  when 
standing  is  reestablished.  It  may  be  retained  by  the  winner 
when  transferred  to  the  reserve. 

HONOR   PRIZES. 

Separate  annual  competitions  are  instituted  for  officers  and 
noncommissioned  officers.  The  winner,  if  an  officer,  receives 
a  sword  or  saber,  and  if  a  noncommissioned  officer,  a  watch, 
presented  in  the  name  of  the  emperor.  The  prizes  are  in- 
scribed with  the  name  of  the  winner  and  year  of  the  competi- 
tion. To  each  army  corps  three  prizes  are  allotted,  one  for 
the  best  shot  among  the  officers,  and  two  for  the  best  shots  of 
the  noncommissioned  officers  of  the  infantry. 

The  competitions  are  held  on  the  various  ranges  in  July  or 
August  of  each  year.  All  officers  and  noncommissioned  offi- 
cers who  are  required  to  take  part  in  the  firing  at  known  dis- 
tances, present  at  the  time  and  not  prevented  by  sickness  or 
other  duty,  take  part.  Field  officers  are  permitted  to  compete 
in  the  officers'  match.  Detached  officers  and  noncommissioned 
officers  take  part  in  the  competitions  at  the  place  where  they 
are  serving,  if  they  have  not  joined  in  that  of  their  own  corps 
in  the  same  year.  Those  who  have  won  prizes  are  debarred 
from  further  competitions. 

The  target  used  is  the  ring  target  with  24  rings,  instead  of 
12  as  in  the  ordinary  target.  The  service  arm  and  ammu- 
nition are  used. 

The  range  is  150  meters,  number  of  shots  7,  3  standing,  with 
rest,  4  staixling  offhand ;  one  sighting  shot,  previously  an- 
nounced, is  permitted.  The  prize  can  not  be  won  with  a  score 
of  less  than  140  points.  The  highest  score  wins,  ties  being 
decided  by  counting  the  value  of  the  shots  backward. 


GERMANY.  89 

Tlie  names  of  the  oflBcers  who  win  prizes  are  borne  on  the 
annual  reports  of  the  corps  and  are  made  known  to  the  em- 
peror. The  honor  prizes  obtained  by  noncommissioned  offi- 
cers are  entered  in  their  descriptive  registers  and  noted  on 
their  discharge  papers. 

OTHER   PRIZES. 

To  each  battalion  the  sum  of  80  marks  is  allowed  annually 
for  the  purchase  of  prizes,  having  the  character  of  souvenirs, 
for  noncommissioned  officers  and  privates  in  the  higher 
classes.  Money  must  not  be  given  as  prizes.  The  range  and 
target  is  the  same  as  already  described.  Three  shots  are 
fired  standing,  offhand;  the  highest  score  wins,  ties  being 
decided  by  counting  the  shots  backward ;  if  all  the  shots  are 
equal,  they  are  decided  by  additional  shots.  Men  in  the 
second  class  are  not  permitted  to  compete. 

RIFLE    BATTALIONS    (JAGERTRUPPEN). 

The  rifle  battalions  (jagertruppen)  have  a  higher  standard 
of  markmanship,  more  extended  range  practice,  and  a  larger 
allowance  of  ammunition  than  the  infantry  of  the  line.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  in  general  the  same,  with  a  few  modi- 
fications. Men  who  on  account  of  prolonged  absence,  etc., 
are  deficient  in  skill,  have  additional  practice  to  enable  them 
to  keep  up  with  their  class. 

The  range  firing  must  be  carried  out  in  the  order  pre- 
scribed, the  omission  of  any  of  the  series  being  forbidden,  nor 
must  regular  practice  be  commenced  until  the  preliminary 
firing  is  finished.  The  firings  at  400,  500,  and  600  meters 
may,  however,  take  place  out  of  their  turn  in  the  series  if  the 
conditions  of  the  range  require  this  to  be  done. 

The  classification  is  the  same  as  for  infantry  of  the  line, 
except  that  having  once  qualified  in  the  first  class,  officers, 
noncommissioned  officers,  and  reenlisted  men  pass  into  the 
special  class,  and,  if  of  superior  skill,  into  a  higher  class,  "A," 
at  the  discretion  of  the  company  commander. 

The  course  of  range  firing  for  the  second  and  first  classes  is 
conducted  in  scores  of  3  shots  at  each  of  10  exercises  of  pre- 
liminary practice,  and  in  scores  of  5  shots  at  each  of  16  exer- 
cises in  regular  practice.  The  exercises  for  each  class  are 
nearly  the  same,  the  main  distinction  being  in  requiring  a 
greater  number  of  hits  or  points  to  qualify  in  the  first  class. 


90  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

BADGES,  PHIZES,  ETC. 

Each  year  after  the  firing  is  completed  badges  are  given  to 
the  best  shots,  six  to  the  special  class,  five  to  the  first  class, 
and  four  to  the  second  class.  The  competitions  for  badges, 
honor,  and  other  prizes  are  conducted  as  in  the  infantry,  75 
marks  being  allowed  to  each  battalion  for  the  purchase  of 
prizes — 15  marks  to  each  company  and  15  marks  for  the  bat- 
talion noncommissioned  officers. 

CASH   GRATUITIES. 

In  addition  to  the  badges  and  prizes  mentioned,  a  monthly 
allowance  of  360  marks  is  made  to  the  battalion  of  the  guards 
and  180  marks  to  the  other  rifle  battalions  for  distribution  in 
equal  parts  to  the  30  best  shots  of  each  company. 

The  right  to  receive  this  gratuity  is  determined  at  the  end 
of  the  target  year  by  competition  among  those  men  who  have 
qualified  in  their  class  in  the  regular  practice  at  full  distances. 
Men  who  have  been  tried  and  convicted  by  court-martial  for- 
feit the  right.  In  special  cases,  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  company  commander,  approved  by  the  battalion  com- 
mander, their  right  may  be  restored.  Noncommissioned 
officers  and  one-year  volunteers  are  excluded.  Men  of  class 
A  who  receive  the  gratuity  while  serving  with  the  colors  lose 
their  right  to  it  when  transferred  to  the  reserve. 

The  gratuity  is  awarded  to  the  30  men  in  each  company 
who  have  qualified  in  the  regular  practice  in  the  least  num- 
ber of  shots ;  when  the  number  of  shots  is  equal,  to  the  great- 
est number  of  hits  in  figure  targets,  and,  lastly,  to  the  highest 
number  of  hits  and  points.  A  board,  composed  of  a  lieuten- 
ant, a  noncommissioned  officer,  and  a  private  selected  by  the 
men  of  the  company,  the  selection  approved  by  the  battalion 
commander,  makes  out  the  lists  from  the  records  of  the 
companies  which  are  submitted  to  them.  The  names  are 
published  in  orders. 

ALLOWANCE   OF   AMMUNITION. 

Of  the  ammunition  allowed  to  each  company,  90  rounds 
per  man  are  reserved  for  field  firing,  1,000  rounds  for  special 
practice  for  officers ;  for  instruction  fire,  a  minimum  of  200 
rounds;  for  competitions,  15  rounds  for  each  officer  and  non- 
commissioned officer  and  3  rounds  for  noncommissioned 
officers  and  privates ;  for  special  exercises  directed  by  company 


GERMANY.  91 

commanders,  15  rounds  for  each  noncommissioned  officer  and 
private,  and  tlie  same  number  for  exercises  prescribed  by  the 
higher  authorities. 

CYCLISTS. 

Cyclists  take  part  in  the  course  of  instruction  like  other 
soldiers  with  the  arm  of  their  corps  and  have  a  little  addi- 
tional practice,  using  the  carbine  model  1891.  The  practice 
is  for  all  classes,  the  firing  is  done  in  the  dress  prescribed  for 
regular  practice,  and  is  without  (qualifying  conditions. 

TECHNICAL   TROOPS. 

The  classification  is  the  same  as  for  infantry,  but  the 
amount  of  range  practice  prescribed  is  much  less,  being  for 
the  second  class  of  engineer  troops,  3  preliminary  scores  of 
3  shots,  and  5  scores  of  5  shots  each  in  regular  practice,  at 
ranges  from  150  to  500  meters ;  for  the  first  and  special  classes, 
2  preliminary  and  5  regular  scores  at  from  150  to  600  meters. 
The  railroad  and  telegraph  troops,  for  the  second  class,  3 
preliminary  and  4  regular-practice  scores,  and  for  the  other 
classes,  2  preliminary  and  4  regular  scores  at  from  150  to  300 
meters ;  the  number  of  shots  in  each  score  of  preliminary  and 
regular  practice  being  the  same  as  for  engineers — 3  and  5, 
resi)ectively. 

Competitions  for  badges  are  held  annually,  there  being 
allowed  to  each  company  of  engineer  and  railroad  troops,  7 
for  the  first  class  and  5  for  the  second  class.  Of  honor  prizes 
one  is  allowed  for  officers  and  two  for  noncommissioned 
officers  of  the  engineer  and  technical  troops  in  common.  For 
the  purchase  of  prizes  for  the  annual  competitions  among  the 
noncommissioned  officers  and  privates,  50  marks  are  allotted 
to  each  battalion  of  engineers  and  railroad  troops;  37.50 
marks  to  the  telegraph  troops;  12.50  marks  to  the  balloon 
detachment,  and  9  marks  to  the  operating'  detachment  of 
railroad  troops.  The  competitions  are  conducted  as  in  the 
infantry. 

AMMUXITIOX. 

From  the  company  allowance  of  the  engineer  troops  15 
rounds  per  man  are  reserved  for  field  firing,  5  for  individual 
fire,  and  10  for  collective  fire ;  for  competitive  firing  15  rounds 
for  each  officer  and  noncommissioned  officer,  and  3  rounds  for 
each  private.     Some  cartridges  are  also  set  apart  for  testing 


92  TARGET    PRACTICE    IX   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

and  regulating  arms.  In  the  railroad  and  telegraph  troops 
10  rounds  are  reserved  for  field  firing,  5  for  individual  fire, 
and  5  for  collective  fire ;  the  other  reservations  are  the  same 
as  for  engineers. 

INSTRUCTION   FIRING. 

This  firing  is  intended  to  demonstrate  the  ballistic  proper- 
ties of  the  rifle,  and  serves  not  only  to  form  a  well-trained 
staff  of  instructors,  but  to  instruct  the  men  as  to  their  con- 
duct in  battle  when  direction  of  fire  fails.  The  more  elemen- 
tary exercises  are  directed  by  the  company  commander,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  noncommissioned  officers  and  men  at  the 
beginning  of  the  firing  instruction  season ;  important  ones  are 
conducted  by  battalion  commanders.  All  are  carried  oh 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  sources  of  error  being  as 
far  as  possible  eliminated.     Some  examples  are : 

TO  SHOW  THE  ERROR  OF  DIFFERENT  RIFLES. 

A  good  shot  seated  behind  a  table  fires,  from  a  rest  at  a  ring 
target  at  350  meters  with  the  same  point  of  aim,  0  shots  from 
an  accurate  rifle,  9  from  one  shooting  high,  and  9  from  another 
shooting  low.  The  center  of  impact  of  each  group  of  shots 
will  measure  the  error  of  the  weapon,  and  show  what  point 
of  aim  should  be  taken  with  eacli  rifle. 

DEMONSTRATION   OF   THE   ACCURACY   OF   RIFLES  AT   DIFFERENT   RANGES. 

Good  shots,  seated,  the  rifle  at  a  rest,  fire  25  shots  at  each 
of  the  distances  350,  500,  and  600  meters,  at  a  ring  target  or 
at  a  white  target  of  the  same  dimensions,  having  marks  to 
serve  as  points  of  aim. 

A  comparison  of  the  extent  of  the  several  shot  groups  with 
the  size  of  various  objectives  in  war,  illustrates  the  reason  for 
fixing  the  distance,  determined  by  the  accuracy  of  tlie  weapon 
itself,  at  which  a  liit  may  be  expected. 

Other  exercises  are  arranged  to  exhibit  the  trajectory  of  the 
bullet ;  the  effect  on  fire  when  the  bayonet  is  fixed ;  penetra- 
tion of  the  l)ullet  into  various  substances — earth,  wood,  iron 
plates,  etc. 

FIRING   UNDER   SPECIAL   CONDITIONS. 

Single  men  in  shelter  trenches  fire  at  200  meters  at  targets 
placed  behind  cover,  screens,  sandbags,  etc.,  through  open- 
ings about  4  by  2  inches  (100  by  50  millimeters),  or  targets 


GERMANY.  93 

representing  the  supposed  cover,  with  the  opening  or  embra- 
sure in  darker  shade,  may  be  used.  This  familiarizes  men 
with  the  different  kinds  of  cover  used  in  war  and  their  influ- 
ence on  fire,  and  shows  the  importance  of  watching  shots  and 
correcting  aim  in  firing  at  small  objectives.  The  exercise 
may  be  extended  when  practicable  to  detachments  firing  at 
from  400  to  700  meters  at  low,  wide  targets,  fixed  or  disap- 
pearing. 

The  principles  of  indirect  fire,  night  firing  in  attack  or 
defense  in  siege  warfare  using  rests,  etc.,  are  also  illustrated 
by  appropriate  exercises. 

EXAMINATION    FIRING. 

Every  year  examination  firing  is  held  in  the  field.  This 
affords  the  higher  authorities  means  to  observe  the  training 
of  the  men  in  firing  under  conditions  resembling  those  of 
actual  war,  and  the  aptitude  and  efficiency  of  the  officers  and 
instructors. 

The  firing  is  directed  by  brigade  or  division  commanders, 
or  by  the  commander  in  chief,  and  the  exercise,  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  an  inspection,  is  prescribed  by  the  inspecting 
officer. 

A  special  allowance  of  ammunition  is  made  for  this  firing, 

TARGETS   FOR   FIELD    FIRING. 

The  authorities  responsible  for  the  instruction  in  firing  are 
also  responsible  for  the  adequate  use  of  appropriate  targets. 

In  addition  to  the  figure  target  and  its  varieties  used  in 
range  practice,  other  targets  are  provided  to  simulate  war 
conditions  in  the  various  field-firing  exercises.  They  are 
constructed  of  light  wood  frames  covered  with  cotton  cloth, 
or,  in  case  of  figures  and  silhouettes,  of  papier-machd,  the 
object  being  lightness  and  ease  of  management.  Fixed  tar- 
gets representing  men,  horses,  guns,  and  caissons  of  full  size 
have  legs  to  be  driven  into  the  ground,  or  they  may  be 
attached  by  wooden  pins  to  base-pieces  permanently  placed 
in  position. 

Infantry  is  represented  by  figures  or  silhouettes  of  men 
lying  down,  front  and  side  views,  and  others  showing  them 
advancing,  retiring,  and  walking  or  running  to  the  right  or 
left.  Cavalry  is  shown  by  figures  of  mounted  men  in  motion 
and  at  a  halt,  front,  side,  and  rear  views  •  artillery  by  varie- 


94 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


ties  of  the  figure  target,  showing  men  of  the  gun  detachment 
facing  to  the  front,  and  by  silhouettes  showing  them  facing 
the  gun,  rear  view  of  horse  without  rider,  and  by  side,  front, 
and  rear  views  of  horse  and  rider ;  by  targets  showing  front 
views  of  guns  and  caissons  of  full  size,  and  others  showing 
the  upper  half  of  these  objects.  The  half-target  guns  and 
caissons,  when  posed,  have  the  appearance  of  being  on  a  re- 
verse slope.  Men  figures  are  grouped  with  the  gun  and 
caisson  targets  as  they  would  appear  in  actual  service.  See 
figures  9  to  17. 


Lines  of  skirmishers  lying  down  are  represented  by  rows 
of  balloon  targets  or  head  figures;  advancing  and  retiring 
lines  in  close  or  open  formation  by  variants  of  the  figure 
targets,  cavalry  by  rows  of  targets,  and  artillery  by  a  com- 
bination of  figure  and  profile  targets  with  guns  and  caissons, 
horses,  etc.  As  a  rule,  artillery  must  be  shown  as  though 
behind  cover,  by  the  half  battery  targets.  When  full  targets 
are  used  they  must  be  i)laced,  as  in  actual  service,  in  rear  of 
elevations,  so  that  only  the  upj^er  part  shows  above  cover. 


GERMANY. 


95 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


96 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


In  all  cases  the  appearance  of  reality  must  be  copied.     In 
the  line  targets  the  figures  should  be  placed   at   irregular 


' JSJcm.  -  - 

Fig.  14. 
161cm ^ 


^^^^^^ra^ 


W^^^^^ 


i_|__U  u-uU_-Jc- 

Fig.  15. — Gun,  full  and  half  view. 


llZcm *| 


.?:?<- 


161  cm 

Fig.  16. — Caisson,  full  and  half  view. 
K 161  cm >i 


&^ 


■^iSf-       h-rf 


"^^^^^m^^^^^^^^^^^m 


Fig.  17. 


intervals,    and   the   upper   line  of   the   figures    representing 
advancing  or  retiring  men  should  not  be  of  uniform  height. 


GERMANY.  07 

Advantage  is  to  be  taken  of  rolling  ground  by  placing  fixed 
targets  so  that  tliey  may  become  suddenly  visible  to  the 
attacking  line. 

DISAPPEARING   AND   MOVING   TARGETS. 

On  permanent  ranges  various  figures  are  arranged  as  dis- 
appearing or  moving  targets,  and  are  manipulated  from  cov- 
ers not  noticeable  from  the  front.  A  target  representing  a 
line  of  infantry  100  meters  long  may  be  erected  in  ten  minutes 
by  eight  men  and  be  worked  by  one  man.  Its  construction 
is  simple,  pieces  of  dimension  stuff  about  18  feet  long,  2^ 
inches  thick,  and  3  inches  wide  are  pinned  together  at  the 
ends  to  make  the  continuous  base  required.  These  rest  at 
the  joinings  on  wooden  sills  and  are  kept  in  position  by  small 
stakes  driven  in  the  ground.  To  the  front  edge  of  the  base 
are  fastened  the  targets  (head,  bust,  etc.) ;  the  end  of  the  base 
projects  into  the  shelter  and  is  provided  with  a  handle  by 
turning  which  the  targets  can  be  turned  over  on  the  ground, 
or  turned  up  into  view,  as  may  be  required.  Similar  targets 
can  be  constructed  on  both  sides  of  the  cover,  which  might 
then  be  the  center  of  a  target  200  meters  long.  To  represent 
the  reenforcement  or  thinning  of  a  line,  two  or  more  of  such 
lines  of  targets  are  placed  close  to  each  other.  In  such  cases 
the  figures  in  the  rear  must  show  through  intervals  in  those 
in  front.  The  lines  of  targets  are  turned  up  or  down  to  show 
reenforcement  or  losses,  the  first  line  turned  forward  and  the 
rear  targets  backward,  so  as  to  allow  the  lines  to  be  placed 
close  together.  In  a  final  charge,  to  facilitate  the  counting 
of  hits,  each  line  has  the  figures  placed  close  together  and  the 
line  which  has  been  fired  on  is  turned  down  and  a  fresh  one 
turned  up.  The  same  object  may  be  attained  in  the  use  of 
one  line  of  timbers  by  nailing  figures  to  three  of  the  faces. 
In  this  case  a  trench  must  run  under  the  target  to  allow  the 
revolving  of  the  figures.  The  advance  of  a  line  or  groups  of 
men  may  be  shown  with  this  arrangement  by  having  the  head 
figures  on  one  face,  bust  or  trunk  figures  on  the  second,  and 
knee  or  full  figures  on  the  third,  each  appearing  in  succession, 
as  the  targets  are  turned. 

Balloon  targets  used  to  represent  lines  of  sharpshooters 
lying  in  a  trench  are  made  of  air-tight  cloth  cylinders  about 
10  inches  high  and  8  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  attached 
at  intervals  to  the  base  timbers.  The  target  is  arranged 
about  as  described  for  the  line  targets,  the  base  being  laid  in 


US  TAKGET    PRACTICE    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

a  shallow  ditch,  with  pits  under  each  balloon,  so  as  to  be  able 
by  a  turn  of  180  degrees  to  throw  the  balloon  entirely  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  To  prepare  them  for  service  they 
are  inflated  by  means  of  a  bellows  or  air-pump;  the  inflation 
is  more  or  less  complete,  depending  upon  whether  colder  or 
warmer  temperature  is  to  be  looked  for  during  the  time  they 
will  be  in  use.  luflation  keeps  them  erect,  and  when  punc- 
tured by  a  bullet  they  soon  collapse,  thus  showing  to  the 
firers  the  effect  of  their  fire.  Shot  holes  or  other  injuries  are 
repaired  Ijy  covering  them  with  patches  of  rubber  cloth  fas- 
tened on  with  rubber  cement;  temporary  repairs  may  be 
made  with  gummed-paper  patches.  The  balloons  are  pro- 
vided with  a  valve  for  deflation  when  not  in  use,  and  detailed 
directions  are  given  for  their  proper  care  and  repair,  which 
is  intrusted  only  to  skillful,  careful  men. 

The  advantage  of  seeing  at  once  the  effect  of  fire  and  the 
illusion  of  reality  they  present  at  long  ranges,  render  the  use 
of  this  style  of  target  very  desirable,  but  they  are  expensive 
and  troublesome.  Recent  military  publications  state  that  a 
new  style  of  target,  having  the  advantages  of  the  balloon  tar- 
get with  the  added  one  of  cheajmess,  has  been  experimented 
with  at  the  Doberitz  camp  and  adopted  for  use  in  Germany. 
The  targets  are  thin  pottery  vessels  shaped  to  show  the  out- 
lines of  the  head  or  bust  figures.  When  in  position  they  are 
filled  with  water,  and  on  being  struck  by  a  bullet  from  a 
modern  rifle  they  are  shattered  by  the  explosive  effect,  which 
allows  immediate  observation  of  the  efficacy  of  the  fire.  At 
the  long  ranges  at  which  they  would  be  used  hits  are  infre- 
quent and  the  cost  to  replace  trifling. 

The  figure  target  and  its  varieties  are  also  used  as, a  dis- 
appearing target  by  providing  a  pit  into  -which  it  may  be 
revolved  out  of  sight.  It  is  provided  with  holes  for  pins  to 
fasten  the  target  to  the  base  so  as  to  permit  such  parts  of  the 
figure  to  show  as  correspond  to  the  head,  bust,  trunk,  and 
knee  targets.  When  hit,  or  after  a  certain  time,  or  at  a  given 
signal,  it  is  withdrawn  from  view.  As  it  requires  time  to 
install,  and  one  man  to  work  each  target,  this  kind  is  used 
only  in  exceptional  cases  on  permanent  ranges,  for  individual 
and  group  firing.  A  less  expensive  and  more  easily  operated 
system  of  disappearing  targets  is  arranged  by  sinking  a  post 
in  the  ground,  the  top  slightly  above  the  level  of  the  surface, 
and  having  a  vertical  pin  on  which  is  pivoted  a  wooden  piece 


GERMANY. 


99 


forming  the  base  of  the  target,  which  may  be  from  4  to  10 
meters  long.  The  figure  or  figures  composing  the  target, 
stiffened  by  light  strips  of  wood  at  the  back,  are  fastened  to 
the  base  piece,  regard  being  had  to  equalizing  the  weight  on 
each  side  of  the  central  pivot.  It  may  be  operated  from  a 
shelter  by  means  of  ropes  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  base 
and  led  into  the  shelter.  When  in  position  for  firing,  the  tar- 
get faces  the  range  and  it  is  made  to  disappear  by  being 
revolved  on  the  vertical  axis  so  that  the  edge  of  the  target  is 
presented  to  the  firing  point.  Stakes  driven  into  the  ground 
limit  the  motion  to  the  proper  extent.  Several  targets  may 
be  operated  simultaneously  from  one  cover  (see  fig.  18). 


Fig.  18. 

The  system  has  the  objection  that  the  figures  are  on  one 
line.  To  show  guns,  caissons,  and  men  in  proper  perspective 
a  rectangular  frame  ("2  by  If  meters)  is  used.  Crosspieces 
are  pivoted  to  the  sides  of  the  frame ;  the  crossjDieces  serve  as 
bases  to  which  the  proper  figures  are  fastened.  The  frame 
lies  on  the  ground,  the  crosspieces  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
of  fire,  so  that  the  targets  face  the  range.  By  means  of  a 
cord  attached  to  the  targets  and  led  back  to  the  shelter  over 
a  pulley  suitably  placed,  the  figures  are  made  to  drop  back- 
ward out  of  view,  or  are  raised  and  held  up  as  may  be  desired 
(see  fig.  19). 

MOVING  TARGETS. 

Targets  are  attached  to  sleds  and  moved  in  the  required 
direction  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  means  of  wire 
ropes  to  which  the  sleds  are  fastened.  On  the  larger  perma- 
nent firing  grounds  machinery  operated  by  steam  or  other 


100 


TARGET  PRACTICE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


power  is  employed ;  on  small  ranges  man  or  horse  power  can 
be  used  to  operate  the  windlasses  or  capstans  on  which  the 
wire  rope  is  wound  when  the  targets  are  moved.  The  targets 
represent  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery  advancing,  retir- 
ing, moving  to  the  right  or  left,  according  to  the  situation  it 


Fig.  19. 


is  desired  to  depict.  They  are  fastened  to  permanent  bases 
bolted  to  the  sleds,  at  right  angles  to  the  runners  to  show 
advancing  or  retiring  troops,  and  jjarallel  to  the  runners  for 
targets  moving  to  the  right  and  left.  When  in  position  ready 
for  use,  the  sleds  are  placed  so  that  the  edges  of  the  targets 
are  turned  to  the  firing  point,  and  at  the  pull  on  the  rope 
when  first  put  in  motion  the  sled  swings  around,  bringing 
the  target  into  view ;  at  the  end  of  the  run  the  sled  is  again 
turned,  causing  the  target  to  disappear.  Another  plan  is  to 
have  the  targets  folded  down  on  the  sled,  raising  them  when 
it  begins  to  move.  The  sled  runners  are  curved  at  the  ends 
to  facilitate  movement  over  uneven  ground,  and  two  sizes  of 
sleds  are  used,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  target  to  be  car- 
ried. The  targets  are  constructed  of  light  frames  suitably 
braced,  covered  with  cloth,  and  they  can  be  enlarged  laterally 
by  extension  pieces.  The  small  sled  can  be  used  to  carry  tar- 
gets showing  skirmish  lines  of  8  figures,  a  close  line  of  17 
figures,  and  7  figures  of  mounted  men ;  the  large  sled  carries 
targets  of  11,  23,  and  11  figures,  respectively.  A  target  show- 
ing a  side  view  of  gun  and  horses  is  carried  on  two  small  sleds 
joined  together,  the  first  carrying  the  figures  of  the  two  fore- 
most horses  and  riders,  the  second  the  third  horse  and  rider, 


GERMANY 


101 


limber,  aud  piece.     The  number  of  targets  to  be  fastened  on  a 
sled  depends  on  tlie  ground,  the  weight  of  the  targets,  strength 


Fig.  20.— Sled  for  moving  target. 

?^=^. r. 


"^ 


«    i 


Fig.  21.  —  How  sled  is  operated. 


n__JO 


mr 


•^     "•. 


:m: 


r;  I  r 


Fig.  22. 


KI 


.'-■eso'- 


Fig.  23. 


•nrVj'- 


ea 


■600 


and  direction  of  the  wind,  as  well  as  the  pulling  power.  When 
a  number  of  targets  are  operated  at  the  same  time,  a  power 
of  from  four  to  eight  horses  is  required. 


102 


TARGET   PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


When  the  nature  of  the  ground  will  not  permit  the  use  of 
moving  targets,  fixed  targets  showing  the  objects  as  they 
would  actually  appear  may  be  used. 


100- 


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-  360  " 
Fig.  24. 


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Fig.  25. 


SIMULATED   FIRE. 


As  the  sound  would  be  drowned  by  the  real  firing  of  groups 
or  larger  bodies  of  infantry,  it  is  used  for  individual  fire  only, 
or  for  squads  when  their  attention  is  to  be  drawn  to  targets 
which  they  would  not  otherwise  detect.  It  is  produced  by 
the  explosion  of  crackers  behind  the  covers. 

The  fire  of  artillery  is  simulated  by  the  explosion  of  bombs 
or  petards  of  different  kinds,  gaged  to  give  the  desired  sound 
and   appearance.     They   are   exploded  by   means   of   fuses. 


GERMANY.  103 

friction  tubes,  or  by  electricity.  Their  arrangement  on  tlie 
ground,  and  the  manipulation  during  the  practice,  is  managed 
by  well-trained  noncommissioned  officers,  and  every  precau- 
tion is  taken  to  prevent  accidents  from  their  use. 

markers'  shelters. 

These,  whenever  practicable,  are  to  be  sunken  covers,  and 
so  arranged  as  to  preclude  injury  from  shots  or  the  explosion 
of  crackers  or  bombs,  to  the  men  in  the  pits.  With  raised 
shelters  every  means  is  to  be  used  to  prevent  the  locations 
being  known,  by  making  them  look  like  the  surrounding 
ground.  To  avoid  unnecessary  digging,  shelters  are  definitely 
located  on  permanent  firing  grounds,  and  when  not  in  use  are 
fenced  around  to  prevent  accidents  when  the  ground  is  used 
for  drill  purposes.  Each  cover  is  equipped  with  a  contrivance 
holding  two  mirrors,  which,  when  adjusted  and  in  position, 
enables  the  men  in  the  cover  to  see  the  range  and  observe 
the  difi^erent  signals;  reserve  mirrors  are  provided  to  meet 
accidents.  At  least  one  noncommissioned  officer  and  one 
private  are  in  each  shelter,  the  one  to  observe  the  firing  party 
and  the  signals,  and  the  other  to  manipulate  the  targets; 
additional  men  may  be  required,  depending  on  the  nature  of 
the  practice.  If  gun  crackers  or  bombs  are  to  be  exploded 
from  the  cover,  a  noncommissioned  officer  is  assigned  for  that 
duty. 

In  the  covers  are  signal  flags  and  material  for  pasting  up 
targets  and  shot  holes. 

Flags  are  used  for  communication  between  the  director  and 
men  manipulating  the  targets.  The  director  whenever  prac- 
ticable occupies  a  cover  overlooking  the  others,  from  which 
signals  are  given  to  the  men  operating  the  targets.  The  signals 
should  not  be  visible  to  the  firing  party,  nor  must  flags  be 
waved  from  any  cover  that  would  betray  its  location.  When 
this  can  not  be  avoided,  the  necessary  directions  must  be  given 
before  the  firing  party  comes  on  the  ground.  Appropriate 
signals  are  arranged  to  show  when  firing  may  commence,  or 
must  cease,  for  signaling  hits,  etc.,  by  flags  and  bugle  calls, 
and  these  signals,  as  well  as  those  which  designate  the  targets 
that  are  to  appear  or  disappear  and  any  special  directions  for 
the  conduct  of  the  exercises,  must  be  well  understood  by  all 
concerned  in  the  several  operations. 


104  TAKGET   PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

FIELD    FIRING,    GENERAL   RULES. 

The  course  for  infantry  comprises  individual  and  collective 
firing,  and  each  is  preceded  by  preparatory  exercises  with 
dummy  and  blank  cartridges. 

The  lieutenants,  noncommissioned  officers,  and  men  of  each 
company  take  part  in  the  individual  fire ;  noncommissioned 
officers  and  men  in  the  collective  firing — the  former  may 
compose  a  special  detachment  for  collective  fire. 

Individual  fire  with  ball  cartridges  may  be  conducted  by  a 
sword-knot  noncommissioned  officer;  collective  fire  must  be 
directed  by  an  officer.  Individual  fire  and  collective  fire  of 
groups,  sections,  and  platoons  is  managed  by  company  com- 
manders. Collective  fire  of  larger  units  is  directed  by  bat' 
talion  or  regimental  commanders.  The  company  officers  are 
present  at  collective  firing  conducted  therein ;  all  the  battalion 
officers  are  present  at  that  of  larger  units.  The  dress  is  tht 
same  as  for  regular  practice  at  known  distances,  with  the 
addition  of  the  canteen,  haversack,  and  intrenching  tools. 

For  siege  firing  the  dress  is  forage  cap,  cartridge-boxes, 
overcoat  carried  like  a  blanket  roll,  canteen,  haversack,  cook- 
ing utensils,  and  intrenching  tools.    Bayonets  are  not  fixed. 

Field  firing  is  conducted  in  the  field  or  on  such  suitable 
ranges  as  may  be  available,  special  regard  being  paid  in 
every  case  to  safety  from  accidents,  which  must  be  insured 
by  every  possible  precautionary  measure,  in  accordance  with 
general  rules  prescribed 'on  this  subject. 

INDIVIDUAL   FIELD   FIRING. 

Instruction  in  this  is  based  on  the  consideration  that  the 
accuracy  of  the  rifle  is  such  that  a  good  shot  may  expect  to 
hit  a  man  lying  down  at  250  meters,  one  kneeling  at  350 
meters,  a  file  (two  men  side  by  side)  kneeling  at  500,  and  a 
file  standing  or  a  single  horseman,  at  600  meters.  Firing  at 
the  various  targets  must,  therefore,  be  within  the  limits  of 
probable  hits,  with  which  the  instructor  must  be  well 
acquainted. 

PREPARATORY   EXERCISES. 

The  preparatory  exercises  are  arranged  by  the  instructor 
so  that  the  man  sees  various  targets  at  difi:erent  distances, 
and  is  instructed  how  to  take  cover,  to  estimate  the  dis- 
tances and  decide  upon  the  elevation  required,  point  of  aim, 


GERMANY.  105 

etc. ;   later  lie  may  do  all  tliese  things  by  himself,  the  in- 
structor afterwards  correcting  errors. 

The  course  demands  high  qualifications  on  the  part  of  the 
instructor,  and  such  time  and  care  is  to  be  given  to  the  in- 
struction of  the  recruit,  including  practice  with  dummy  and 
blank  cartridges,  as  will  supplement  that  already  received  in 
the  theory  of  rifle  fire,  demonstration  of  the  capabilities  of 
the  rifle,  and  handling  of  the  piece,  so  that  the  only  real  nov- 
elty in  the  field  firing  with  ball  cartridges  will  be  the  effect 
produced  by  the  bullets. 

FIRING   WITH   BALL  CARTRIDGES. 

These  exercises  are  carried  on  against  figure  targets  with 
its  modifications  and  targets  representing  horsemen,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  prejjaratory  exercises. 

For  skillful  men  more  difficult  exercises  are  arranged.  To 
insure  thoroughness  men  pursue  the  course  separately,  under 
the  surveillance  of  the  instructor.  "Without  moving  the  man 
may  fire  at  targets  appearing  in  succession  at  different 
ranges,  or  he  may  himself  advance  or  retire.  To  encourage 
the  observation  of  shots  he  may  be  accompanied  by  another 
man,  who  watches  the  shots  and  tells  him  where  they  strike, 
and  they  may  alternate  in  firing  and  watching  for  each  other, 
provided  that  they  go  through  their  course  independently, 
firing  at  their  own  targets.  At  first,  before  firing,  the  man 
announces  to  the  instructor  his  estimate  of  the  distan,ce,  ele- 
vation required,  etc. ;  these  are  corrected  if  necessary.  After 
the  man  has  gained  assurance  he  operates  alone,  and  may 
state  these  details  after  firing  the  shot.  On  the  company 
target  record  the  days  of  practice  by  the  man  are  entered  on 
the  memorandum  made  at  the  range,  the  name  of  the  man, 
and  the  number  of  cartridges  fired.  The  company  com- 
mander decides  whether,  and  how,  the  result  of  the  fire  is  to 
be  recorded. 

Men  of  the  lowest  class  take  up  the  firing  as  soon  as  suffi- 
ciently instructed,  others  as  early  as  possible  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  target  year.  If  convenient  •  ground  for  the 
individual  fire  be  lacking,  the  commander  in  chief  may 
authorize  it  to  be  omitted,  but  the  omission  of  such  fire  for 
two  years  in  succession  in  tJie  same  unit  is  to  be  avoided. 
The  omission  must  be  specially  noted  in  the  annual  report 
of  firing. 


106  TARGET    PRACTICE    IX   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

COLLECTIVE   FIRE. 

In  the  preparatory  exercises,  dummy  and.  blank  cartridges 
are  used.  Targets  may  be  represented  by  detachments,  which 
appear  or  disappear  according  to  the  signals  or  instructions 
agreed  on,  and  in  pursuance  of  a  prearranged  scheme  of  the 
instructor.  Artillery  and  cavalry  may  be  shown  by  men 
carrying  Hags  of  certain  colors,  or  by  targets.  To  develop 
promptness  and  decision  in  leaders  and  quickness  in  the  men, 
different  targets  are  presented  at  unknown  distances,  and 
these  may  appear,  or  be  supposed  to  be  visible  for  varying 
periods,  and  a  certain  time  be  allowed  to  deploy  the  men  to 
deliver  the  appropriate  fire. 

The  first  exercises  are  by  a  file  of  men,  then  by  a  group.. 
The  men  are  instructed  how  to  act  in  attack  or  defense,  in 
the  use  of  sights,  in  rising  quickly  for  a  rush,  and  getting 
into  position  for  firing,  catching  the  aim  promptly,  etc.  This 
is  succeeded  by  progressive  exercises  for  platoons  and  larger 
detachments.  Conditions  requiring  independent  action  on 
the  part  of  the  men  are  also  to  be  represented. 

FIRING   WITH   BALL   CARTRIDGES. 

The  exercises  are  on  similar  lines  to  the  preparatory  ones, 
using  appropriate  targets,  among  which  should  be,  if  possible, 
disappearing  and  moving  targets.  The  exercises  should  be 
based  on  simple  tactical  suppositions,  represent  some  phase 
of  an  action,  rather  than  a  continuous  conflict,  and  in  general 
the  detachment  is  assumed  to  be  acting  in  concert  with  or 
as  a  part  of  a  larger  body.  The  training  is  to  be  addressed 
more  particularly  to  infantry  opposed  to  infantry,  by  fre- 
quent fire  at  short  and  medium  ranges  at  low  targets  repre- 
senting skirmish  lines,  but  firing  at  longer  ranges  is  not  to  be 
neglected. 

During  pauses,  or  at  the  end  of  the  exercise,  results  of  fire 
are  ascertained  and  compared  with  the  expenditure  of  ammu- 
nition, on  the  available  supply  of  which  the  extent  of  the 
exercises  will,  to  a  great  extent,  depend. 

The  results  of  the  fire  are  not  recorded,  but  the  days  on 
which  collective  fire  has  been  held  are  noted,  and  if  a  supe- 
rior desires  information  regarding  exercises  at  which  he  was 
not  present,  it  is  furnished  in  a  simple,  brief  report. 

The  development  of  the  exercises  depends  on  the  allotment 
of  ammunition  by  the  higher  authorities,  in  addition  to  the 


GERMANY.  107 

ordinary  allowance  of  the  unit.  The  additional  supply  is 
meant  to  allow  the  different  units  in  turn  to  have  exercises 
on  a  large  scale,  rather  than  to  be  equally  divided  between 
them  each  year.  If  extensive  exercises  in  siege  warfare  and 
indirect  fire  can  not  be  carried  on,  the  principles  of  these 
kinds  of  fire  will  be  illustrated  in  the  instruction  or  demon- 
stration firing. 

In  field  firing  the  course  of  an  action  is  usually  swifter,  the 
fire  more  rapid,  and  the  consumption  of  ammunition  much 
greater  than  it  would  be  in  reality.  To  prevent  peace  habits 
from  having  a  Ijad  effect  in  actual  service,  leaders  and  men 
must  be  thoroughly  instructed  on  this  point. 

From  experiments  in,  and  study  of,  the  effect  of  collective 
small-arm  firing,  the  Germans  have  derived  the  rule  that  for 
ranges  up  to  800  meters  one  sight  should  be  used ;  for  greater 
distances,  two  sights,  dift'ering  by  100  meters,  one  50  meters 
more,  the  other  50  meters  less  than  the  estimated  distance. 
The  front  rank  fires  with  the  lower,  and  the  rear  rank  with 
the  higher  sight.  There  is  thought  to  be  no  advantage  in  the 
use  of  more  than  one  sight  for  bodies  of  less  strength  than  a 
section  of  infantry  or  a  platoon  of  cavalry. 

Sufficient  results  may  be  obtained  from  collective  fire  on 
low  targets  (infantry)  up  to  600  meters;  beyond  that  distance 
the  expenditure  of  ammunition  would  be  too  great,  though 
high  targets  (representing  cavalry)  can  be  hit  up  to  1,000 
meters.  At  greater  distances  fire  should  not  be  opened  except 
on  objects  that  by  jeason  of  height,  breadth,  and  depth  present 
a  favorable  target. 

CAVALRY. 

The  men  are  trained  in  the  use  of  the  carbine,  officers  and 
noncommissioned  officers  in  the  use  of  the  carbine  and  re- 
volver, trumpeters  in  the  use  of  the  revolver  only. 

GENERAL   RULES. 

The  course  of  instruction  for  the  cavalry  is  the  same  as  for 
infantry.  The  same  targets  are  used,  the  section  targets  400, 
500,  and  600  meters  being  designated  as  section  targets  I,  II, 
and  III,  respectively.  The  rules  for  range  practice  and  field 
firing,  competitions,  etc.,  are  in  general,  as  far  as  applicable, 
the  same  as  prescribed  for  infantry. 


108  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Tlie  third  class  consists  of  men  in  their  first  year  of  service, 
and  poor  shots  of  longer  service ;  the  second  class  of  the  men 
who  have  qualified  in  the  first  year's  course,  the  first  class  of 
the  men  who  have  qualified  in  the  second  class.  Ofiicers  are 
classed  by  the  regimental  commander,  and  those  ofiicers  and 
noncommissioned  ofiicers  who  have  twice  fulfilled  the  condi- 
tions of  the  first  class  form  a  special  class  to  which  special 
fire  problems  are  assigned  by  the  regimental  commander. 

The  preliminary  and  regular  practice  of  all  classes  is  held 
in  seven  scores  of  3  shots  each,  three  of  preliminary,  and  four 
of  regular  practice.  The  third  class  fires  at  ranges  from  150 
to  500  meters;  the  second  and  first  classes  at  from  150  to  60Q 
meters.  The  qualifying  scores  for  all  classes  are  less  than 
those  of  the  corresponding  infantry  classes. 

One  badge  for  each  of  the  special,  first,  second,  and  third 
classes  in  every  company  is  given  annually  to  the  best  shots 
among  the  noncommissioned  ofiicers  and  privates. 

HONOR   PRIZES. 

For  the  cavalry  there  are  allowed  three  for  ofiicers  and 
four  for  noncommissioned  ofiicers. 

REGIMENTAL   COMPETITIONS. 

An  annual  allowance  of  50  marks  for  the  purchase  of  prizes 
is  made  to  each  regiment,  10  marks  for  the  noncommissioned 
officers,  and  8  marks  for  the  men  of  each  squadron.  The 
winner  among  the  noncommissioned  officers  is  the  one  who 
makes  the  best  score  in  revolver  practice.  The  competition 
among  the  men  is  joined  in  by  as  many  men  of  all  classes  as 
the  supply  of  ammunition  for  the  purpose  permits.  They  fire 
three  shots,  using  the  carbine,  at  150  meters,  standing,  off- 
hand, at  a  target  similar  to  that  used  in  the  honor-prize  com- 
petition. The  one  getting  the  highest  number  of  rings  wins; 
ties  are  decided  by  counting  shots  backward,  etc.  For  the 
noncommissioned  officers  of  detached  sciuadrons  of  mounted 
orderlies,  6  marks  are  allowed  for  prizes,  and  1  mark  more 
for  each  additional  squadron  in  the  same  garrison ;  for  the 
men  of  each  squadron  8  marks. 

TROOPS   OF  THE  TRAIN. 

The  men  are  armed  with  the  carbine,  and  are  instructed  in 
its  use  at  short  ranges.     They  are  divided  into  two  classes  and 


GERMANY.  lOU 

tlie  preliminary  and  regular  practice  for  eacli  class  is  held  in 
five  scores  of  5  shots  each,  two  of  preliminary  and  three  of 
regular  practice,  at  ranges  from  150  to  200  meters. 

REVOLVER   PRACTICE. 

In  the  cavalry,  all  officers  and  men ;  in  the  infantry  and 
foot  artillery,  company  officers,  sergeants  major,  vice-ser- 
geants major,  sword-knot  noncommissioned  officers,  color- 
bearers,  regimental  and  battalion  drum-majors,  and  such 
noncommissioned  officers  and  men  as  are  trained  as  litter- 
bearers  and  for  service  in  the  sanitary  detachments,  and 
officers  of  the  train  troops,  are  instructed  in  revolver  firing. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  the  same  ft)r  all  branches  of 
the  service;  it  is  designed  to  teach  the  proper  use  of  the 
weapon  in  battle,  and  includes  a  knowledge  of  its  construction 
and  manipulation,  the  principles  of  pointing  and  aiming, 
with  and  without  a  rest,  and  firing  with  dummy  and  blank 
cartridges. 

Each  firing  practice  is  preceded  by  instruction  in  handling 
the  revolver  and  by  practice  with  dummy  or  blank  cartridges 
elsewhere  than  on  the  range,  and  strict  rules  are  enforced  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  accidents.  For  practice  with  ball 
cartridge  the  ring  and  figure  targets  are  used. 

The  firing  exercise  for  infantry  and  foot  artillery  is  as 
follows : 

Five  shots,  using  a  rest,  at  20  meters,  at  the  figure  target, 
aiming  at  the  body,  each  shot  being  marked  after  firing. 

Five  shots,  offhand,  same  range,  target,  and  point  of  aim, 
each  shot  marked  as  before. 

The  accuracy  of  the  weapon  is  such  that  a  good  shot  can 
hit  the  target  every  time. 

The  company  commander  may  direct  special  exercises  for 
such  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  as  show  superior 
skill. 

For  cavalry : 

Five  shots,  with  rest,  at  20  meters,  at  the  ring  target,  aim- 
ing at  ring  5  below  the  bull's-eye,  each  shot  being  marked. 

Five  shots,  offhand,  at  20  meters,  at  the  figure  target,  each 
shot  marked. 

Five  shots,  offhand,  at  30  meters,  at  figure  target,  each  shot 
marked. 

Five  shots,  at  same  range  and  target,  shots  marked  at  the 
end  of  the  score. 


110  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

A  good  shot  is  expected  to  hit  the  bnll's-eye  in  the  first 
exercise,  and  the  figure  target  in  the  other  shooting,  at  every 
shot. 

Ofiicers  of  the  train  fire  5  shots  at  20  meters,  using  a  rest,  at 
the  ring  target,  and  5  shots,  offhand,  at  the  figure  target. 

Revolver  practice  is  always  under  the  direction  of  a  com- 
missioned officer ;  no  exception  to  this  rule  ig  permitted. 

FIELD    ARTILLERY. 

The  target  practice  for  field  artillery  is  divided  into  firing 
at  known  distances  (school  j^ractice),  and  the  field  or  combat 
firing.  The  school  practice  is  carried  on  in  the  battery ;  the 
field  firing  in  the  battery,  battalion,  or  regiment,  on  troop 
exercise  grounds,  artillery  j^ractice  grounds,  and  in  the  open 
country,  which  latter  gives  opportunity  for  the  use  of  unknown 
ground  offering  difficulties  differing  according  to  the  season. 

The  practice  period  is  in  summer,  the  time  for  which  is 
fixed  by  the  corps  commander.  The  duration  of  the  practice 
is  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-three  days,  when  two  regiments 
are  present,  and  from  twenty-seven  to  thirty  days,  when  three 
or  four  regiments  are  on  the  ground  at  the  same  time.  Prac- 
tice in  the  open  country  is  carried  on  after  the  field  firing,  and 
before  the  autumn  maneuvers. 

As  soon  as  the  higher  authorities  issue  the  orders  for  tar- 
get practice,  the  regimental  commander  makes  general 
arrangements  for  the  program  to  be  carried  out,  assigning 
days,  time,  and  place  for  the  different  firings,  directs  the  divi- 
sion of  the  ammunition  among  the  batteries,  assigns  officers 
temporarily  attached  for  instruction,  and  gives  general  instruc- 
tions for  the  batteries  and  battalions  in  carrying  out  the  pro- 
gram. He  also  arranges  the  exercises  that  seem  to  him  most 
useful.  For  this  purpose  he  calls  for  suggestions  and  recom- 
mendations from  battery  and  battalion  commanders  as  to 
nature  and  place  of  targets,  positions  of  batteries,  etc.  Fatigue 
parties  are  sent  ahead  by  each  regiment  to  make  preparations 
for  its  practice  and  get  the  targets  ready. 

The  various  targets  used  have  already  been  referred  to. 
The  batteries  report  for  practice  with  six  guns  and,  if  possible, 
three  caissons. 

SCHOOL   PRACTICE. 

The  school  practice  is  regarded  simply  as  preparation  for 
the  combat  firing,  and  is  limited  to  the  amount  considered  to 


GERMANY.  Ill 

be  absolutely  necessary,  determined  for  every  battery  by  the 
regimental  commander  according  to  tlie  degree  of  training 
shown  and  the  number  of  officers  to  be  instructed.  The  bat- 
tery chief  conducts  the  school  practice.  As  he  knows  the 
problems  to  be  solved  he  prepares  the  battery  by  instruction 
and  practice,  the  lieutenants  commanding  in  turn.  Usually 
the  first  practice  day  is  devoted  to  finding  the  range  by  trial 
shots;  to  firing  at  different  targets  at  known  distances,  and 
to  observing  the  accuracy  and  effect  of  the  fire.  On  succeed- 
ing days,  according  to  proficiency  of  the  men  and  officers, 
instruction  in  the  use  of  fuses,  firing  with  time  shells,  delib- 
erate fire  at  targets  up  to  1,500  meters,  curved  fire,  etc.,  is 
given,  if  necessary  rejDeating  the  exercises  of  the  first  day. 
Observation  is  extended  to  noting  grazing  shots,  bursting- 
points  in  front  of  and  beyond  the  targets,  which  should  be 
the  effect  of  design.  Instruction  in  the  service  of  the  piece 
and  in  laying  and  pointing  is  included  in  the  school  practice, 
but  is  not  to  interfere  with  the  firing  instruction.  Deploy- 
ments are  in  all  cases  made  as  in  actual  service.  Field- 
howitzer  batteries  use  "exercise  shells"  against  targets  that 
would  in  actual  service  be  fired  at  with  percussion  or  fuse 
shells.  This  is  because  the  danger  from  the  use  of  high- 
explosive  shells  can  not  be  sufficiently  guarded  against  if  fired 
in  practice. 

FIELD    PRACTICE. 

This  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  course  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  it. 

The  exercises  are  based  on  simple  tactical  suppositions,  and 
leaders  and  troops  must  not  know  in  advance  the  problem  to 
be  solved.  It  is  given  out  just  before  the  exercise  is  to  take 
place.  Leaders  have  the  utmost  latitude  in  selecting  their 
positions,  new  problems  are  presented  by  the  disappearance 
of  some  targets  and  the  appearance  of  new  ones,  the  changing 
conditions  of  a  fight  being  shown  by  these  means  and  by 
causing  men  and  officers  to  fall  out  as  though  disabled,  etc. 

Most  of  the  field  j^ractice  is  devoted  to  the  battery  practice, 
which  is  directed  by  the  battalion  commander,  the  batteries 
are  commanded,  as  prescribed  in  regimental  orders,  by  their 
chiefs,  or  by  one  of  the  lieutenants,  and  the  problem  given 
usually  assumes  their  connection  or  cooperation  with  other 
troops.  Individual  batteries  may  have  more  extended  prac- 
tice, for  which  an  increased  supply  of  ammunition  is  given. 


112  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

In  the  practice  by  battalion,  the  chief  or  one  of  the  senior 
captains  may  command;  in  the  latter  case  the  regimental 
commander  may  charge  the  battalion  commander  with  the 
management  of  the  practice,  and  the  batteries  be  commanded 
by  their  chiefs  or  one  of  their  lieutenants. 

The  ordinary  ammunition  allowance  is  sufficient  for  only 
a  few  days'  practice  for  each  battalion,  the  battery  practice 
being  favored  in  this  respect.  Leaders  are  expected  to  select 
problems  that  will  give  instructive  phases  of  an  action,  such 
as  carrying  out  an  artillery  attack  in  different  conditions ; 
opposing  an  infantry  attack;  preparing  for  an  attack  by 
friendly  infantry ;  the  use  of  shells  against  fortified  positions, 
etc.  The  course  of  the  action  is  always  to  be  varied  by  the 
battalion  commander  directing  a  change  of  targets,  combining 
the  fire  of  several  batteries,  etc.  By  causing  the  unexpected 
appearance  of  horse  artillery  or  other  targets  at  close  range, 
cases  are  presented  where  the  battery  commander  has  himself 
to  order  a  change  of  target. 

The  fire  of  one  battery  or  group  of  batteries  may  serve  for 
the  instruction  of  others,  and  exercises  are  arranged  so  that 
all  the  officers  of  a  group  may  assist  at  the  fire  of  one  of  its 
batteries,  and  all  the  officers  of  a  regiment  at  the  fire  of  a 
group  or  specially  instructive  fire  of  one  battery.  Similarly, 
the  gunners  of  a  battery  are  present  at  all  the  firings  of  their 
own  battery,  being  relieved  from  all  other  duty  for  this 
purpose. 

Regimental  field  practice  may  take  place  if  the  supply  of 
ammunition  and  other  conditions  permit. 

The  allowance  of  ammunition  and  the  money  credits  neces- 
sary to  carry  on  the  practice  are  fixed  by  the  military  author- 
ities and  depend  on  the  sum  appropriated  in  the  annual 
budget.  This  usually  permits  only  a  limited  supply  of  am- 
munition, so  that  only  the  more  important  kinds  of  firing 
can  be  executed,  and  the  expenditure  of  ammunition  has  to 
be  carefully  watched  to  prevent  waste.  Details  of  the  allow- 
ance and  cost  of  ammunition  for  the  various  units  are  not 
published  except  for  the  information  of  those  concerned  in 
carrying  on  the  practice.  The  "Armed  Strength  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,"  published  by  the  British  intelligence  division 
in  1888,  states  that  a  sum  of  money  which  for  Prussia  alone 
amounts  to  about  seven  millions  of  marks  (over  $1,600,000) 
is   set   apart  every  year  for  artillery  practice,   divided  up 


GERMANY.  113 

among  the  various  ranges.  The  same  source  gives  the  an- 
nual allowance  of  ammunition  for  battery  practice  as  2-44: 
shell,  100  shrapnel,  and  12  case.  The  recent  changes  in  arma- 
ment of  the  German  artillery,  and  the  great  development  of 
this  arm,  would  warrant  the  belief  that  these  figures  are  at 
present  increased  rather  than  diminished. 

REPORTS   OF   FIRING. 

These  furnish  a  means  of  determining  comparative  effi- 
ciency, and  for  collecting  instructive  data  regarding  the  guns 
and  ammunition.  The  careful  preparation  of  these  reports, 
which  should  be  absolutely  reliable,  is  supervised  in  the  bat- 
talions and  regiment.  The  firing  list  is  prepared  in  each 
battery  by  an  officer  specially  detailed  for  the  purpose,  from 
notes  of  the  firing  of  the  battery  made  by  two  noncommis- 
sioned officers,  one  of  whom  records  the  commands  and  direc- 
tions of  the  battery  commander,  and  the  other  the  time  and 
order  of  fire,  number  and  kind  of  projectile,  etc.  The  report 
of  the  effect  of  the  fire  on  the  targets  made  by  the  observing 
detachment  charged  with  this  duty  is  attached  to  the  firing 
list,  which  is  made  up  immediately  after  each  firing,  and 
sent  to  the  leader  for  completion  by  adding  thereto  any 
memoranda  of  the  conditions  of  the  action,  orders  or  direc- 
tions of  the  battalion  commander,  etc.,  necessary  to  the  proper 
understanding  of  the  j^ractice. 

The  duty  of  observing  and  recording  the  effect  of  fire  is 
performed  by  detachments  commanded  by  an  officer,  assisted 
by  underofficers  and  soldiers,  all  carefully  chosen,  and  well 
instructed  in  their  duties.  Observation  stations  are  located 
at  convenient  points  on  the  ground,  connected  by  wire  with 
the  position  occupied  by  the  officer  directing  the  fire.  Every 
shot  fired  is  observed,  and  record  made  at  the  time,  of  the 
striking  or  bursting  points,  effect  on  the  target,  etc.,  so  that 
the  report  made  by  the  observers  can  be  compared,  shot  by 
shot,  with  the  record  kept  at  the  firing  points.  Together 
they  give  the  data  for  the  "critique"  which  is  made  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  exercises.  The  observation  posts  may  serve 
for  one  or  more  targets,  and  are  provided  with  necessary 
blanks  for  recording  shots,  sketches  of  the  ground,  material 
for  repair  of  damaged  targets,  etc. 

After  the  close  of  the  exercises,  regimental  commanders 
make  up  a  review  of  the  firing,  to  which  may  be  added  any 


114  TARGET    PRACTICE    IX    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

special  remarks  on  tlie  effect  or  result  of  any  particular  firing, 
or  explanations  regarding  any  departures  from  prescribed 
rules.  If  exercises  take  place  in  the  open  country,  only  the 
expenditure  of  ammunition,  approximate  cost  of  the  same, 
and  occurrences  calling  for  special  mention  are  reported. 
These  reports,  with  the  remarks  thereon  of  brigade  and  divi- 
sion commanders,  are  sent  to  corps  headquarters,  from  which 
they  are  forwarded  by  the  1st  of  November  of  each  year  to 
the  "inspection  of  field  artillery,"  and  are  sent  from  there 
to  the  war  minister  on  or  before  November  15. 

To  enable  the  inspector  of  field  artillery  to  judge  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  practices  and  the  firing  capacity  of  the 
troops,  he  is  furnished  with  copies  of  the  regimental  programs 
and  the  firing  lists  of  any  one  or  all  the  regiments  in  the 
corps. 

COMPETITIONS,    PRIZES,  AND  BADGES. 

Two  competitions  are  held  annually  among  the  gunners  of 
each  battery,  in  which  prizes  are  awarded  to  the  successful 
ones.  One-year  volunteers  are  allowed  to  compete,  but  may 
not  receive  money  prizes.  The  first  competition  is  held  in 
April  of  each  year,  all  gunners  appointed  within  the  year 
being  eligible. 

The  exercises  consist  of  pointing  at  targets  at  supposed 
ranges,  with  different  kinds  of  fire  and  projectiles.  Rec- 
tangular targets  about  67  inches  (]  70  centimeters)  high  and 
20  inches  (50  centimeters)  wide,  upper  half  black  and  lower 
half  white,  are  placed  at  distances  from  500  to  1,000  meters, 
to  determine  the  correctness  of  direction  of  the  piece.  Only 
competitors  who  attain  a  fixed  standard  receive  prizes.  Of 
these  the  first  gets  6  marks,  the  second  5  marks,  and  the 
third  4  marks. 

The  second  competition  is  also  held  in  the  batteries  on  their 
return  from  the  field  exercises  among  the  six  best  gunners 
who  have  not  already  received  prizes.  In  addition  to  the 
pointing  exercises  at  targets,  guns  are  aimed  at  a  supposed 
hostile  battery,  represented  by  guns  located  at  such  a  distance 
as  to  be  barely  visible.  The  competitor  on  seeing  the  flash 
and  smoke  of  the  shot  from  the  hostile  gun  trains  his  piece 
thereon  with  tlie  elevation  corresponding  to  his  estimate  of 
the  distance.  As  soon  as  the  pieces  are  pointed,  and  at  a 
given  signal,  a  man  with  a  flag  places  himself  at  the  muzzle 
of  the  piece  just  fired  and  an  officer  verifies  the  correctness  of 


GERMANY.  115 

the  pointing.  Three  such  exercises  are  given  to  each  com- 
petitor, and  the  final  classification  is  based  on  standing  in 
both  competitions,  ties,  if  any,  being  decided  by  superiority 
in  the  pointing  at  hostile  guns. 

Insignia  are  given  to  privates  in  their  first  year  of  service, 
including  one-year  volunteers,  who  have  shown  skill  in  point- 
ing, and  to  noncommissioned  officers  and  reenlisted  men  who 
are  distinguished  for  skill  and  intelligence  in  the  field  firing. 
The  latter  are  in  eight  classes,  being  promoted  to  a  superior 
class  every  year.  Soldiers  who  receive  their  insignia  dis- 
charge the  functions  of  gunner  while  in  service  and  are  can- 
didates for  appointment  as  noncommissioned  officers.  The 
badge  for  skill  in  field  firing  is  a  silver  grenade  and  is  the 
highest  class  of  badge  worn.  Men  who  win  badges  as  pointers 
or  gunners  receive  certificates  to  that  effect,  and  the  fact  is 
noted  in  their  records  and  on  their  discharge  papers. 

FOOT    ARTILLERY. 

The  foot  artillery  manning  land  fortresses  has  annual 
target  practice  on  the  artillery  jjractice  grounds,  conducted 
on  the  same  principle  as  that  of  the  field  artillery.  The 
objects  fired  at  are  permanent  works,  masonry  revetments 
or  targets  representing  such  works,  siege  batteries,  etc. 
Competitions  for  gunners'  prizes  are  held  as  in  the  field 
artillery. 

FIRING   SCHOOLS,    RANGES,  ETC. 

The  infantry  firing  school  at  Spandau  (northwest  of  Berlin) 
is  under  the  supervision  of  the  inspection  of  infantry  schools, 
and  is  designed  especially  for  the  training  of  infantry  in  com- 
bat firing,  though  for  the  last  few  years  cavalry  has  also 
received  training  here.  Spandau  is  a  large  fortress,  and,  in 
addition  to  its  instructional  uses,  is  a  great  center  of  army 
supplies,  an  experimental  and  testing  station  for  all  kinds  of 
small  arms  and  machine-guns,  and  is  designed  for  a  refuge 
for  the  archives,  treasure,  and  court.  The  imperial  war 
treasure  is  kept  here,  which  is  intended  to  meet  the  first 
expenses  of  mobilization  in  case  of  war. 

The  school  staff  consists  of  1  colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel 
in  command;  he  has  a  lieutenant  as  aid,  a  field  officer,  4  cap- 
tains, and  8  lieutenants,  and  an  instruction  company  of  non- 
commissioned officers  of  Prussian,  Saxon,  and  Wurttemberg 
infantry.     Among  the   instruction  courses  carried  on  here 


116  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

each  year  are  two  of  fourteen  days  each  for  lieutenant  colonels 
of  dismounted  troops,  including  foot  artillery;  one  of  four- 
teen days  for  36  captains  of  cavalry,  one  of  fourteen  days  for 
commanders  of  infantry  regiments,  and  four  courses  of  five 
weeks  each  for  60  captains  and  30  first  lieutenants  of  infantry. 

Practice  courses  for  noncommissioned  ofiicers  of  infantry 
and  cavalry  are  held  at  Spandau,  Hagenau  in  Alsace,  Gruppe, 
near  Graudenz  on  the  Vistula,  and  Munster  in  Hanover;  and 
at  Spandau  (for  the  first  time  in  1900)  a  training  course  in 
the  use  of  machine-guns  for  officers  and  noncommissioned 
officers  of  the  rifle  battalions.  Infantry  practice  on  a  large 
scale,  not  practicable  in  the  limited  space  at  Spandau,  is  held 
at  Tegel,  north  of  Berlin,  and,  in  connection  with  field  artil- 
lery, on  the  extensive  firing  grounds  at  Jiiterbog. 

The  royal  Bavarian  military  firing  school  is  at  the  range 
and  drill  grounds  of  Lechfeld,  16  miles  south  of  Augsburg. 
It  is  intended  solely  for  Bavarian  troops,  and  courses  of 
instructions  are  held  annually  for  field  officers,  captains,  and 
lieutenants  of  infantry,  and  for  officers  and  noncommissioned 
officers  of  cavalry  and  foot  artillery. 

The  field-artillery  firing  school  at  Jiiterbog,  in  Branden- 
burg, is  under  the  supervision  of  the  inspector  of  field  artil- 
lery. The  school  staff  consists  of  1  major  general,  2  field 
officers,  and  an  aid.  Four  field  officers  and  12  captains  are 
detailed  as  instructors,  and  an  instruction  regiment  is  sta- 
tioned there,  made  up  of  three  detachments  of  three  field 
batteries  each.  Courses  for  senior  officers,  in  classes  of  12 
field  officers,  72  captains,  and  46  first  lieutenants,  are  held 
yearly;  two  courses  for  lieutenants  in  classes  of  100  each,  and 
four  spring  courses  for  furloughed  officers,  35  in  each  class. 
Bavarian,  Wurttemberg,  and  Saxon  field-artillery  officers  are 
also  detailed  to  these  courses. 

The  foot-artillery  firing  school  is  also  located  at  Jiiterbog. 
Its  personnel  consists  of  1  field  officer  commanding,  with  a 
lieutenant  as  aid,  and  3  field  officers  and  2  captains  as  in- 
structors. There  is,  in  addition,  an  instruction  battalion  of 
three  companies.  There  are  held  here  yearly  two  courses 
for  junior  officers,  one  for  officers  of  the  furloughed  class, 
and  two  £or  noncommissioned  officers. 

Since  1899  there  have  been  detailed  for  instruction  to  the 
infantry  firing  school  at  Spandau  from  each  army  corps,  one 
division  commander,  who  were  originally  in  the  cavalry  or 


GERMANY.  117 

artillery ;  and  to  the  artillery  firing  school  at  Jiiterbog,  one 
division  commander  and  one  senior  brigade  commander,  who 
were  originally  in  the  cavalry  or  infantry. 

Ranges  are  established  at  convenient  points  throughout 
the  empire  for  instruction  of  the  troops  in  firing.  Those  for 
artillery  practice  are  at  Tegel  (near  Berlin),  Jiiterbog,  Gruppe, 
Falkenburg,  Wesel,  Wahn  (Rhineland),  Lockstedt  (Holstein), 
Darmstadt,  Hagenau,  Zithain  (near  Riesa),  and  Lechfeld 
(near  Augsburg).  These  are  all  large  ranges,  as  much  as 
5,500  yards  long,  situated  on  heaths  or  surrounded  by  forests. 
Accommodations  for  troops,  officers'  Cjuarters,  barracks,  sta- 
bles, etc.,  of  a  permanent  character,  are  provided  for  a  brigade 
of  field  artillery.  These  ranges  are  also  used  by  the  cavalry 
for  their  regimental  drills,  by  infantry  for  their  field  firing, 
and  by  the  landwehr  when  called  out  for  training,  so  that 
they  are  occupied  during  a  great  part  of  the  year.  Each 
range  is  administered  by  a  staff  of  artillery  officers,  who 
attend  to  necessary  construction,  repairs,  and  general  supplies. 
Material  for  their  own  practice  and  ammunition  is  brought 
by  the  troops  assigned  to  the  range  for  target  practice. 


V.-GIIEAT  BRITAIN. 


The  musketry  regulations  of  1898  have  already  been  found 
to  need  revision  on  account  of  the  experience  gained  in  South 
Africa,  and  the  military  authorities  are  still  engaged  in  pre- 
paring an  edition  to  bear  date  1901.  The  revision  not  being 
completed  in  December,  1901,  a  "provisional  course  of  mus- 
ketry for  the  year  1902"  was  issued. 

Targets  for  individual  range  practice  are  rectangular  with 
bulPs-eyes  surrounded  by  one  ring :  First  class  6  by  8  feet, 
bull's-eye  3  feet,  ring  5  feet  in  diameter ;  second  class  6  by  6 
feet,  bull's-eye  2  feet,  ring  4  feet  in  diameter,  and  third  class 
4  by  6  feet,  bull's-eye  1  foot,  ring  2  feet  in  diameter.  For 
collective  firing  a  sectional  target  (1  by  8  feet),  having  on  a 
white  ground  four  rudely  outlined  silhouettes  of  men  in  line 
kneeling,  is  used. 

In  the  musketry  regulations  a  soldier  is  a  "recruit"  until 
he  has  gone  through  his  recruit  course,  Table  A,  when  he  is 
called  a  "trained  man."  A  trained  man  is  said  to  be  "exer- 
cised" when  he  has  been  through  the  course  in  Table  B. 

A  military  correspondent  in  the  Times  of  December  20,  1901, 
gives  the  following  synopsis  of  the  provisional  course  for  1902  : 

' '  Table  A,  recruits,  cavalry,  and  infantry,  "consists of  four  parts,  of  which 
the  first  three  count  for  classification.  Part  I  includes  eleven  practices  at 
200,  300,  and  400  yards,  7  rounds,  ' '  independent, "  in  each  practice.  The  tar- 
gets for  the  various  distances  are  as  laid  down  in  the  1898  regulations,  but 
in  practices  Nos.  5  and  8,  at  200  and  300  yards,  respectively,  the  position  is 
"sitting,"  and  throughout  the  eleven  practices  any  kind  of  natural  or  arti- 
ficial rest  may  be  iised  by  a  recruit  if  found  necessary.  Parts  II  and  III 
remain  unchanged  except  for  the  substitution  of  the  terms  ' '  independent " 
and  "magazine  independent"  for  "deliberate"  and  "rapid  individual," 
and  the  reduction  of  the  time  allowed  in  "magazine  independent"  from  a 
minute  to  forty-five  seconds  from  the  command  "Commence."  Part  IV 
consists  of  four  "independent"  practices,  the  first  three  at  100,  the  fourth 
at  150  yards,  one  at  a  vanishing  target,  one  at  a  fixed  head  and  shoulders, 
and  two  at  a  moving  figure.  In  the  practice  at  the  fixed  head  and  .shoul- 
ders the  firer,  crouching  behind  cover,  momentarily  exposes  himself  suffi- 
ciently to  fire  a  rai^id  shot,  recruits  being  allowed  four  seconds  for  exposure, 
fire,  and  complete  return  to  cover  from  "Commence"  or  signal.  In  the 
above-mentioned  practices  168  rounds  are  expended,  leaving  32  for  three 
field  practices  to  be  directed  by  the  assistant  adjutant  and  carried  out 
under  conditions  as  practical  as  possible.  The  points  required  for  classi- 
fication as  a  first-class  shot  are,  as  at  present,  300  for  cavalry  and  380  for 
infantry. 

(119) 


120 


TARGET  PRACTICE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


"Table  B,  trained  infantry,"  now  consists  of  three  parts — independent, 
miscellaneous  jwactices,  and  practices  for  whicli  rounds  are  allotted  to 
commanding  officers  and  company  commanders.  Part  I  includes  twelve 
practices,  of  wliicli  the  first  six  are  in  the  1898  regulations,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  position  in  No.  4  at  500  yards  is  ' '  sitting ''  instead  of ' '  kneeling. " 
No.  7  is  "any  position,"  100  yards  at  a  vanishing  head  and  shoulders  ex- 
posed four  seconds;  No.  8  at  a  fixed  head  and  shoulders,  100  yards,  the 
firer  crouching  behind  cover  and  momentarily  exposing  himself  as  in  the 
similar  jiractice  in  Table  A.  Trained  men,  however,  are  allow'ed  only 
three  seconds  for  exposure,  fire,  and  complete  return  to  cover.  Nos.  9, 10, 
and  11  are  at  vanishing  head  and  shoulders,  fixed  head  and  shoulders,  and 
vanishing  second-class  targets  respectively,  the  distances  being  in  the 
first  two  cases  200  and  in  the  third  500  yards.  No.  12  practice  is  any  posi- 
tion, magazine  independent,  600  yards,  at  a  second-class  vanishing  target 
exposed  forty-five  seconds.  Part  II  embraces  three  practices,  No.  13,  inde- 
pendent, about  150  yards  at  a  moving  figure ;  No.  14,  magazine  independent, 
about  200  yards,  any  position,  behind  cover,  two  shots  at  each  backward 
and  forward  run  of  a  moving  figure,  8  rounds  in  all;  No.  15,  magazine 
independent,  about  200  yards,  any  position,  behind  cover,  at  a  vanishing 
figure.  A  target  to  appear  at  intervals  of  five  seconds,  each  time  at  a  dif- 
ferent place,  and  to  remain  exposed  fotir  seconds.  Horizontal  space  for 
each  man's  target  not  less  than  28  feet.  In  the  first  two  parts  106  rounds 
are  expended,  leaving  94  for  Part  III,  of  which  41  are  allotted  to  the  com- 
manding officer  and  53  to  the  captain,  who  formerly  had  only  40  rounds 
per  man  at  his  disposal.  In  addition  to  these  94  rotmds  per  man,  general 
officers  are  authorized  to  draw  4,000  rounds  per  battalion  of  infantry.  At- 
tention is  directed  to  special  instructions  for  moving  and  vanishing  tar- 
gets and  range  appliances,  which  will  assist  in  framing  schemes  and  in 
selection  of  suitable  targets. 

To  speak  broadly,  the  main  changes  in  Tables  A  and  B  introduced  since 
the  1898  regulations,  which  have  been  in  force  only  up  to  the  present  year, 
are  the  abolition  of  volleys,  the  system  of  firing  behind  cover,  and  the 
permission  accorded  to  recruits  to  use  any  kind  of  natural  or  artificial  rest 
in  their  independent  practices  at  200,  300,  and  400  yards.  The  increased 
encouragement  of  individuality  in  the  preparation  of  special  schemes  by 
captains  of  companies,  the  closer  attention  iiaid  to  the  use  of  vanishing 
and  moving  targets,  and  the  introduction  of  the  "sitting"  position  are 
other  matters  in  which  progress  is  indicated. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  course  prescribed  by 

the  musketry  regulations  of  1898  for  cavalry  and  infantry  is 

given  below: 

Table  A. — Recruits. 

PaUT    I. — Dei.IBKUATK    IXDIVIDIAI,    FlHK. 


Kauge. 

Tiugc-t. 

NumbL'i-  of  scores  of  7  shots  cacli. 

Yards. 

200 

200 

Third  class    .        —       - 

1>... 

300 

I>«.. 

■100 

do                 

GREAT    BRITAIN. 
Table  A.  — Recruits — Continued. 

Part  II. — Delibehate  I.ndividial  Fiue. 


121 


Til  licet. 


Xunilx'i-  cif  stoix-s  of  7  .shuts  faili 


Yurds. 
500 
600 

TOO 
800 


First  class 

-.-do 

do  ___ 

do 


2  scores — 1  juoue,  1  kiieidiii: 
1  si'ore — prone. 

Do. 

Do. 


I'AitT  III. — Kai'111  Indivioiai,  Fiuk. 


■li  10 
.=)(  HI 


Second  class  . 
First  cla.ss  __. 


1  kueeliug,  1  staudiutj 
1  prone,  1  kneeling. 


Part  IV. — Collective  Fire. 


3(10 
300 
300 
500 
600 
30O 
500 


Sectional 

do  .. 

do  -. 

do  _. 

do  _. 

do  _. 

do  -. 


7  deliberate  voUe.vs — front  rauk  kneeling. 

7  shots,  deliberate,  independent — front  rank  kneeling 

7  shots,  rapid,  independent — single  rank,  kneeling,  u 

7  shots,  delilierate  volleys — single  rauk,  kneeling. 

7  shots,  deliberate  volle.ys — single  rank,  prone. 

7  shots,  rapid  volleys— front  rank  kneeling,  a 

7  shots,  rapid  volleys — single  rauk,  kneeling.  <t 


Table  B. — Trained  Men. 


Pari'  L — Dei.u-.f.rate  Ixuividial  Fiuk. 


200 
200 
500 
500 

Third  class 

do 

Second  class 

_       do 

1  kneeling. 
1  standing. 
1  prone. 

COO 

800 

do 

First  class 

1  prone. 
1  prone. 

300 

Sectional 

7  shots,  deliberate  volleys — front  rank  kneeling. 
7  shots,  rapid  volleys — front  rank  kneeling,  a 
7  shots,  rapid,  independent — front  rank  kneeling,  a 
7  shots,  deliberate  volleys — single  rank,  kneeling. 
7  shots,  rapid  volleys — single  rauk,  kneeling,  a 
7  shots,  independent — single  rank,  kneeling,  a 
7  shots,  deliberate  volleys — single  rank,  prone. 
7  shots,  rapid  volleys — single  rank,  prone.  <t 

21  shots,  attack  practice — as  prescribed. 

300 

do 

300 

-  .  do    . 

500 

-  do  .  _ 

500 

-  do  _                   _     . 

50O 
600 

do 

do          _     - 

fiOO 
SOO) 

200j 

do 

do 

II.  Magazine  fire.     Time  allowance,  one  minute. 

A  new  system  of  instruction  in  field  firing  lias  been  adopted 
at  Aldershot.  The  general  idea  and  the  details  of  the  system 
of  skirmish  runs  were  worked  out  by  Capt.  E.  L.  C.  Fielden, 
74th  (2d  battalion)  Highland  Light  Infantry.  Capt.  E.  B. 
Cassatt,  Thirteenth  Cavalry,  United  States  military  attache 
in  London,  who  visited  Aldershot  in  November,  1901,  and 


122  TARGET    PRACTICE    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

through  the  courtesy  of  the  British  war  office  witnessed  the 
setting  up  and  working  of  the  targets,  describes  it  as  follows : 

The  ground  used  at  Aldersliot  for  this  purpose  enables  one  battalion  to 
advance  to  the  attack  with  as  near  an  approach  to  the  conditions  of  actual 
warfare  as  I  have  seen.  The  battalion  advances  in  column  of  route,  when 
fire  is  suddenly  opened  upon  it  by  a  single  gun,  posted  about  800  yards  to 
the  left  front.  Deployment  is  made  at  once  and  the  gun  is  silenced.  On  the 
Uring  line  reaching  the  crest  of  a  long  hill  perpendicular  to  the  front,  the 
first  position  of  the  enemy  is  seen,  about  900  yards  distant,  and  the  advance 
is  subjected  to  artillery  fire  from  a  battery  about  2,500  yards.  The  enemy 
can  hardly  be  distinguished,  as  their  skirmishers  show  only  their  heads 
and  shoulders,  and  that  only  occasionally.  As  the  advance  continues,  the 
enemy  are  supposed  to  have  retired  to  a  second  position  about  800  yards 
away,  with  a  deep  ravine  in  its  front,  through  which  runs  a  main  railway 
line.  The  enemy's  object  is  to  destroy  this  line  before  the  advance  can 
occupy  it,  and  with  this  object  in  view,  an  armored  train  is  sent  down  to 
cover  a  party  of  men  who  come  running  down  the  hill  to  blow  up  the 
tracks,  which  they  are  supposed  to  succeed  in  doing.  The  advance  con- 
tinues beyond  the  railway  and  up  the  hill,  when  the  enemy  is  found  to 
have  taken  his  last  position  near  the  guns  aforementioned.  The  battalion 
thus  strikes  three  positions,  covering  about  2,500  yards. 

The  targets  are  merely  dummy  figures  of  the  simplest  construction,  and 
look  as  if  they  had  been  made  by  some  post  carpenter.  They  are  all 
worked  by  men  in  pits  by  means  of  ropes  and  springs,  with  the  exception 
of  the  armored  train  and  the  wrecking  party.  An  extensive  system  of 
telephones  connects  all  the  pits.  A  peculiar  i^art  of  the  arrangement  is 
that  the  advance  is  the  whole  time  subjected  to  shrapnel  fire,  which  is 
obtained  by  means  of  the  explosion  of  small,  harmless  bombs,  suspended 
from  wires  above  the  men's  heads  or  laid  on  the  ground  in  front.  This 
and  the  firing  of  the  dummy  guns  by  the  same  means  are  the  only  elec- 
trical features  of  the  system.  I  must  myself  confess  to  having  been 
startled  when  one  of  the  imitation  shrapnel  exx^loded  without  any  warn- 
ing at  my  horse's  feet.  The  only  thing  in  the  system  which  could  not  be 
made  at  any  post  is  an  ingenious  spring  by  wiiich  the  fixed  targets  are 
made  to  resume  their  upright  position  after  being  pulled  down.  I  can 
heartily  recommend  the  adoption  of  a  similar  system  at  some  of  our  larger 
posts.  I  inclose  an  extract  from  the  Strand  Magazine  of  December,  1901, 
containing  plates  of  the  only  photographs  of  the  new  system. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  be  stated  that  over  all  the  ground  are  covered  pits 
for  the  use  of  umpires,  who,  by  means  of  mirrors,  can  watch  the  advance 
in  all  its  movements.  The  only  drawback  to  the  practical  utility  of  this 
range  is  that  the  Government  will  allow  only  20  rounds  per  man  to  be  used 
in  this  practice. 

The  Strand  Magazine,  from  which  the  accompaiiying  illus- 
trations are  copied,  says : 

In  order  to  give  our  readers  an  idea  of  a  field  day  on  the  ranges  we  will 
imagine,  for  the  time  being,  that  we  are  part  and  parcel  of  the  attacking 
force.  Forward !  March  !  We  scatter  and  become  units  of  a  long  strag- 
gling line  of  creeping,  ever  advancing  foes.  We  avail  ourselves  of  every 
particle  of  cover.     What  is  that  on  the  crest  of  the  hillv     The  enemy"? 


GREAT    BRITAIN. 


12J 


"Who  said  the  enemy".'  Why,  yes,  sxirely  there  they  arc  again.  Watch 
these  two  men  running  along  the  crest  of  the  hill,  Lnt  before  the  -words 
are  out  thev  are  gone  again. 


Fig.  1. — The  running  men.  showing  how  they  are  worked  from  the  pit. 


Fig.  2.— The  same  figures  on  the  crest  of  the  hill  some  400  yards  away. 


124 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Someone  on  our  left  had  taken  a  pot  shot  at  theni.  A  hit !  No,  it  isn't. 
They  are  there  once  more.  Let  us  get  nearer.  On  we  creep ;  we  reach 
the  coveted  hill,  we  make  a  dash  for  the  top,  and  lo !  before  us  are  the 
dummy  figaires  of  the  enemy.  On  our  right  we  see  a  Maxim  ready  to  fire. 
The  gvmner  pops  up  and  down  behind  the  breech.  "Shoot  him  if  you 
can,  boys!"  and  the  peppering  begins 


Fig.  3. — The  dummy  Maxim. 

Then  without  a  moment's  notice  heads  and  shoulders  appear  in  the 
heather,  and  before  we  can  take  aim  they  are  gone  again. 

The  magazines  are  brought  into  use  and  we  pepper  away  for  our  lives. 
The  heads  appear  again  and  are  lost  to  view  a  moment  after. 


Fig.  4. — Heads  and  shoulders  among  the  heather. 


GREAT     HKITAIX. 


125 


"We  reach  the  hill.  Behold  a  signaler.  He  waves  his  flag,  evident!}' 
sending  a  message  to  his  commander  in  rear,  reporting  onr  advance.  He 
is  gone,  our  excitement  grows  to  a  tremendous  pitch.  There  he  is  again ! 
Ping,  ping,  ping;  he's  do^^^l.  But,  alas,  it  is  not  the  rifle  that  had  done 
it,  but  the  man  in  a  protecting  pit  who  has  worked  the  life-like  dummy. 


Fig.  5. — The  signaler. 


Fig.  6.— The  dummy  cavalry— note  the  ropes  which  keep  the  figures  straight. 

We  advance  continuously.     Five  hundred  yards  ahead  there  is  a  house— 
a  Boer  inn.     We  intend  to  capture  it,  but  we  are  not  there  vet.     We  have 


126 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


to  face  a  cavalry  charge.  The  intrepid  horsemen  are  dummies  too,  but 
none  the  less  are  swift  of  motion.  Note  the  ropes  which  give  them  life. 
"We  give  the  mounted  men  a  lesson.  Look  at  the  white  patches,  each  of 
which  denotes  a  bullet  mark,  and  you  ^vill  say  that  we  have  made  good 
practice  to-day. 


Fig.  7. — The  dummy  armored  train  spits  fire. 

We  must  get  to  the  inn  at  any  price:  it  must  be  stormed.     We  crawl 
again  down  hill,  behind  hillocks,  across  ditches  and  ravines.     But  what 


W'-V- 

___  M 

^A 

■ri 

'-■■^^m^'^^^^-^          '■'«•■.■■.■;" 

■ 

WlBttimJ^^BM 

^^■9  t. 

b 

'-■>.fC 

Mi- 

. ^  ' lipi"^' ifT'^  jiiM wT 

w& 

jdiisis 

ci 

k 

Fig.  8.— The  armored  train  "going  home."     The  white  patches  indicate  the  hits 
after  a  field  day. 


is  this  ?     Take  cover !     A  roar  and  a  nimble — it  is  the  armored  train ! 
With  a  shriek  it  dashes  across  the  valley  and  spits  fire  at  us  as  it  goes. 

A  party  of  the  enemy  has  been  sent  to  wreck  the  line  as  soon  as  the 
train  has  passed.  They  tear  down  the  hill  in  front  of  us  and  disappear 
from  view.  They  have  had  a  bad  time.  Look  at  their  poor  dummy 
bodies.     But  see,  they  are  wp  again  for  a  few  seconds  near  the  signal  box. 


I 


GREAT    P.KITAIX. 


127 


What  i.s  that  hjud  explosion  't  Halloa!  they  have  siicceeded;  yes  the  line 
is  blown  up.  They  were  gallant  fellows,  but  they  did  not  know  the  vahie 
of  taking  cover. 


Fig.  9. — The  dummy  wrecking  party. 


Fig.  10.— After  Ihe  attack. 


We  do,  and  on  we  creep.  There's  a  man  coming  ont  of  the  inn  with  a 
gxin — probably  the  landlord.  Steady,  boys,  bang !  bang !  We've  got  him ! 
No,  he  turns  tail  and  enters  the  house  again.  We  do  our  best,  however, 
and  give  him  a  parting  shot  in  the  back  just  as  he  gains  shelter.     As  we 


128 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUINTRIES. 


advance  we  obtain  a  glance  of  tlio  back  of  tliis  structiire,  and  we  note 
■svdtli  satisfaction  that  we  have  left  onv  marks  on  the  walls — canvas  walls — 
and  on  the  dummy  figures  that  appeared  at  short  intervals  at  the  windows. 


Fig.  11. — The  landlord. 


Fig    12. — The    Boer  inn. 


GREAT    BRITAIN. 


129 


^^^^^^^1^       ^w        '  ^^      ^^'^^^^^^^^^H 

"r"^'-^^..-. 

Fig.  13. — The  Boer  inn — behind  the  scenes. 


Fig.  14.— The  pit,  with  men  who  "work"  the  innkeeper. 


We  climb  anotlier  kopje  and  come  under  the  fire  of  a  battery,  just  visi- 
ble in  the  far  distance,  craftily  concealed  under  the  shadow  of  a  wood. 
"We  hear  an  explosion;  it  is  the  15-pounders  opening  fire.  Halloa!  one  of 
its  deadly  messages  drops  and  explodes  less  thaii  20  yards  in  front  of  us. 
Shrapnel  covers  (sic)  our  advance,  but  undaunted  we  move  ahead 
unswerving  toward  the  coveted  goal. 


130  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


-^^m^  .  11 


i^^^iSS^^n- 


Fig.  15. — The  dummy  bailery. 


Fig.  16. — The  switch. 


Fig.  17. — The  explosion  of  a  ground  mine. 


GREAT    BRITAIN.  131 

We  find  out  afterwards  that  the  l)attery  fire  was  not  so  deadly  as  might 
have  been  anticipated  by  anyone  who  did  not  know  that  the  bursting 
shells  were  nothing  more  than  ground  mines  fired,  as  we  advanced,  by 
electricity  from  the  switch  shown  on  the  preceding  page. 

So  our  illusion  is  over.  We  shake  hands,  for  we  have  done  imcommonly 
well,  but  we  want  to  come  again. 


I 


VT.-RUSSIA. 

[Reported  by  Capt.  S.  L'H.  Slocum,  Eighth  Cavalry,  Uiiiteci  States  Military  Attache  at  St.  Petersburg.] 


INFANTRY. 


Instruction  begins  on  the  first  of  May  and  is  conducted  by 
the  subaltern  officers  of  the  company  under  the  superintend- 
ence and  responsibility  of  the  company  commanders.  The 
usual  preliminary  instruction  is  given  and  all  preliminary 
drills  are  executed  with  fixed  bayonets. 

Every  soldier  fires  100  rounds  annually  with  aiming  tubes 
and  shot. 

For  an  infantry  regiment  the  following  number  of  drills  is 
recommended : 


Company. 

Battalion. 

Regiment. 

19 
4 

12 
3 

4 

TARGETS. 

The  targets  used  for  ordinary  practice  are  of  two  sizes. 
No.  1  is  70  inches  high,  52^  inches  broad,  divided  into  three 
vertical  belts,  the  outer  belts  being  painted  light  gray  and 
the  center  one  white  with  a  black  band  4i  inches  broad  and 
widening  in  the  center  to  a  circle  down  the  middle.  No.  2  is 
84  inches  in  length  and  70  inches  broad,  painted  light  gray 
and  divided  by  narrow  black  lines  into  6  equal  horizontal 
bands.  There  are  also  in  use  targets  17^  inches  broad  and, 
respectively,  70,  35,  and  17^  inches  high,  on  which  are  painted 
full-length,  half-length,  and  head  figures  of  Russian  soldiers. 
For  prize  firing,  a  circular  target  ll  inches  in  radius  and 
divided  into  14  rings  is  used.  Figures  may  be  painted  on 
No.  1  target. 

(133) 


134 


TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


The   course   of    target    practice   for   active,    reserve,    and 
fortress  infantry  is  as  follows : 


No. 

Kange. 

Position. 

Target. 

Description  of  fire. 

Number  of 
rounds. 

1st 
time. 

Other 
times. 

1 

Paces. 
200 
200 

300 
400 
400 
400 
500 
800 

Standing 

3  rounds  prone,  2 
rounds  kneel- 
ing. 

Standing 

do 

No.  1 

5 
5 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

5 

91 

._     do             

R 

do 

5 

4 

Full  figure 

do  _..        

5 

5 

Kneeling 

do  _  .      

fi 

Head 

_.     do      . 

5 

7 

do 

.      do  _„     

8 

3  rounds  prone, 
with  rest ;     2 
rounds  kneel- 

do  _  .      _. - 

5 

q 

1,000 
400 

500  to 
300 

do    _     „ 

8  figures ._ 

1  disappearing 

half  figure. 
Half  figure  for 

each  man. 

do 

5 
5 

5 

5 

in 

Individual ;  5  seconds  for  each 
round. 

Individual  fire  by  command  of 
group  leader,  from  one  posi- 
tion after  a  rush  forward,  each 
man  on  his  own  target ;  slow 
fire. 

Individual  fire  by  command  of 
group  leader,  from  two  posi- 
tions after  rushes  forward ; 
slow  fire  from  first,  and  quick 
fire  from  second  position; 
marking  of  hits  for  whole 
group. 

Volleys  by  squads  in  open  order, 
by  command,  after  an  advance 
in  quick  time,  from  one  posi- 
tion. 

"Volleys  by  half  companies  in 
line,  by  command  after  an 
advance  at  quick  time ;  one 
minute  allowed. 

Company  in  line  ;  volley  by  half 
companies,  by  command,  al- 
ternately, at  two  distances, 
after  an  advance  in  quick 
time ;  one  and  one-half  min- 
utes allowed  in  all  for  firing. 

Solution  of  a  tactical  problem 
by  the  company,  half  in  firing 
line,  half  in  support. 

The  half  company  formerly  in 
firing  line  iu  support  and  vice 
versa. 

5 

11 

Prone  or  kneel- 
ing, according 
to  ground. 

12 
IS 

800  to 
400 

1,200 
to  800 

1,800 

to 
1,200 

2,600 

to 
2,000 

2,600 
to 
400 
2,  (300 
to 
400 

do 

do 

4   double    half 
figures. 

8  figures 

15  figures,  2 
paces  apart. 

21    No.   2   tar- 
gets in  rows 
25  paces  dis- 
tance. 

Field  targets 

.     _  do 

10 

5 
5 
10 

20 
20 

10 
5 

14 

do 

5 

15 
IH 

Standing   or 
kneeling,   ac- 
co  rd  ing  to 
ground. 

_  do ._ 

10 
20 

17 

-  do 

20 

All  officers  shoot  yearly  the  first  to  tenth  practices.  Non- 
combatants  shoot  yearly  only  Nos.  1,  2,  and.  4,  and  all  com- 
batant noncommissioned  officers  and  men  the  whole  course  iu 
their  first  year ;  in  the  following  years  the  course,  with  the 
exceptions  of  Nos.  2,  5,  7,  and  11.  Reserve  men  called  in  for 
training,  or  on  mobilization,  only  shoot  Nos.  4,  12,  and  13. 
For  each  officer  there  are  allowed  150  rounds  of  ball  am- 
munition, and    for    each    noncommissioned    officer  or   man 


RUSSIA.  135 

(combatant  or  iioncombataut),  150  rounds  of  ball  and  15  of 
blank  ammunition  yearly.  The  total  of  the  rounds  allowed 
for  noncommissioned  officers  and  men  is  expended  as  follows: 
Fifteen  rounds  a  man  for  noncombatants;  125  ball  and  15 
blank  cartridges  for  each  man  firing  the  course  for  the  first 
time;  105  rounds  of  ball  cartridges  for  each  man  firing  the 
course  for  the  second  or  subsequent  times.  The  remainder  is 
at  the  disposal  of  the  commander  of  the  unit  for  field-firing 
exercises  on  a  larger  scale,  shooting  in  winter,  extra  rounds 
for  bad  shots,  inspections,  and  prize  firing. 

After  completing  the  eleventh  practice,  the  combatants  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  the  first  comprising  those  who  in 
their  first  year  have  33  hits  out  of  55  shots,  or  in  subsequent 
years  21  hits  out  of  35  shots,  the  second  class,  all  the  others. 

Those  who  for  two  years  running  have  been  in  the  first 
class  receive  badges.  Prizes  of  from  1  to  2^  rubles  are 
given,  after  a  competition  at  200  paces,  to  the  best  10  shots 
of  each  company.  Five  rounds  are  fired  for  accuracy  at  a 
ring  target,  and  10  rounds  in  thirty  seconds  for  rapidity. 
Prizes  (weapons)  are  also  given  for  good  shooting  among  offi- 
cers. In  each  regiment  or  independent  battalion  a  certain 
number  of  men  of  vigorous  constitution  and  good  eyesight, 
and  who  are  good  shots,  are  chosen  as  scouts  (okhotniki)  and 
placed  under  a  selected  officer.  A  principal  feature  of  their 
training  is  the  hunting  of  wild  animals,  for  which  in  a  regi- 
ment, 500,  and,  in  an  independent  battalion,  200  rubles  are 
once  and  for  all  allowed  for  the  purchase  of  rifles,  dogs,  etc., 
these  being  afterwards  kept  up  by  the  sale  of  the  game  shot. 

The  object  is  to  have  specially  trained  men  for  difficult  or 
dangerous  duties  in  war.  The  number  so  trained  should 
never  be  less  than  four  per  company. 

TARGET  PRACTICE  FOR  CAVALRY. 

In  March,  target  practice  begins,  and  by  the  1st  of  May 
recruits  and  old  soldiers  should  have  finished  not  less  than 
six  of  the  practices  of  the  course  (see  below). 

For  target  practice  eight  days  per  squadron,  and  six  per 
regiment,  are  reserved. 

For  estimating  distances  four  days  per  squadron. 


136 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Cavalry  target  practice. 


No. 

Kangp. 

PusitiriM. 

Target. 

Description  of  fire. 

Number 
of  rounds. 

1st       Other 
time,     times. 

1 

Paces. 
200 
200 

400 
400 

800 

1,000 
400 
1,200  to 
800. 

2,400  to 
2,000 

2,400  to 
400 

Standing 

3  rounds  prone, 
2    rounds 
kneeling. 

Standing 

Kneeling 

.3  rounds  jjrone, 
with  rest;  2 
rounds  kneel- 
ing. 

do 

Mounted 

Any  position 

do 

do 

No.  1 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 
5 

20 
20 

5 

9 

Head  on  No.  1  _ 

_       .do  -                       ... 

3 

do           -_          

5 

4 

Half  figure 

.do                        . 

,"> 

_     do  _                             -_     __ 

5 

6 

8  figures 

do 

5 

No.  1 

do 

5 

8 
9 

10 

8  figures 

21  No.  2  targets 
iu  3  rows,  2.5 
paces  apart. 

Fielil  targets 

Squad  volleys  in  open  order,  by 
command,  after  an  advance  in 
quick  time,  from  one  position. 

Volley  by  half  squadrons,  by  com- 
mand; squadron  advances  in  line 
at  quick  time;  firing  from  two 
positions,  each  one  and  one-half 
minutes. 

Solution  of  a  tactical  problem  by 
the  squadron,  half  in  firing  line, 
re.st  iu  support. 

10 
20 

All  officers  shoot  every  year  through  the  first  to  seventh 
practices.  Noncombatants  only  shoot  the  first,  second,  and 
third,  and  all  other  combatants  shoot,  in  their  first  year,  all 
the  practices;  in  their  second  and  subsequent  years  all  except 
Nos.  2  and  4.  For  each  officer  there  are  allowed  75  rounds  of 
ball  ammunition,  and  for  each  combatant  or  noncombatant 
noncommissioned  officer  or  man  75  rounds  of  ball  and  10 
rounds  of  blank  ammunition,  and  100  rounds  for  use  with 
aiming  tubes  (gallery  practice)  yearly.  Cossacks  go  through 
the  sa,me  course  as  regular  cavalry. 

There  is  no  revolver  practice  for  cavalry. 

FIELD    ARTILLERY    TARGET    PRACTICE. 

It  includes  firing  against  a  visible  and  stationary  target, 
against  a  target  invisible  to  the  gunners  and  against  moving 
objects.  The  field  practices  by  single  batteries  are  four  in 
number,  and  are  always  executed  with  a  battery  of  eight  guns. 

These  practices  are : 

1.  Direct  firing  with  ring  shell,  changing  to  shrapnel, 
against  a  target  in  the  open  at  2,100  to  2,800  yards. 

2.  Firing*  against  a  target  unseen  from  the  battery,  at  1,166 
to  2,3.32  yards. 

3.  Case  or  shrapnel  fire  at  short  ranges. 

1.  Any  field  practice  chosen  by  the  brigade  commander. 


RUSSIA.  137 

The  allowance  of  ammunition  for  the  yearly  course  of  prac- 
tice in  all  field,  reserve,  sortie,  and  mountain  batteries  is  182 
ring  shell,  164  shrapnel,  and  10  case,  and  in  addition,  for 
field  firing,  15  ring  shell  and  30  shrapnel  for  field,  etc.,  and  7 
ring  shell  and  13  shrapnel  for  horse  or  light  batteries. 

For  the  inspections  there  are  allowed,  for  each  battery,  70 
to  100  rounds,  to  be  fired  at  about  3  A'ersts  (about  3,300  yards), 
50  to  70  rounds  to  be  fired  at  about  2  versts,  and  about  30 
rounds  to  be  fired  at  about  1  verst. 

Artillery  practice  begins  about  the  1st  (our  14th)  of  August, 
and  is  carried  out  in  the  great  artillery  camps,  five  in  number. 

For  revolver  practice,  20  rounds  per  pistol  are  allowed  in 
the  field,  and  26  in  the  horse  batteries. 

SEACOAST-ARTILLERY    TARGET    PRACTICE. 

No  details  obtainable. 

RIFLE   RANGES. 

Each  camp  has  a  rifle  range  for  the  use  of  all  troops  sta- 
tioned in  it,  and  it  must  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  used 
for  tactical  exercises  also.  It  should  be  about  6,500  paces 
long,  and  firing  should  be  capable  of  being  carried  on  over 
3,500  paces  of  it. 

If  sheets  of  water,  marshes,  hills,  large  woods,  etc.,  are  in 
the  rear  of  the  targets,  the  length  of  the  range  may  be  reduced 
to  4,500  paces.  The  total  breadth  of  a  range  for  an  infantry 
regiment  is  1,000  paces,  for  a  brigade  1,300  paces,  and  for  a 
division  1,900  paces.  In  these  figures  it  is  assumed  that  8  out 
of  the  16  companies  of  a  regiment  will  be  using  the  range 
simultaneously.  Only  four  markers'  butts  are  allowed  for 
each  regiment. 

FIRING    SCHOOLS. 

The  firing  school  for  infantry  oflicers  at  Oranienbaum  is 
designed  to  give  instruction  in  combat  firing  to  ofiicers  detailed 
yearly  for  instruction.  The  number  of  officers  detailed  and 
range  of  subjects  treated  have  been  greatly  increased  since 
1898.  The  instructional  troops  attached  to  the  school  have 
been  increased  from  a  company  to  a  battalion.  The  courses 
of  instruction  last  for  seven  months,  and  more  stress  is  now 
laid  on  the  training  of  captains  as  battalion  commanders  and 
as  directors  of  the  scientific  investigations  of  young  officers. 


138  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  firing  school  of  field,  mountain,  foot,  and  seacoast 
artillery  is  situated  at  Tsarskoye-Selo,  near  St.  Petersburg. 
Captains  of  artillery  are  instructed  in  the  same  course  as  cap- 
tains attending  the  infantry  school.  Other  courses  are  held 
for  junior  lieutenants  of  field  and  mountain  artillery  in  the 
summer  at  Ust-Izhora  and  Krasnoye-Selo,  near  St.  Petersburg, 
and  for  those  of  foot  and  seacoast  artillery  at  Ochakof  (44 
miles  east  of  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea).  By  an  order  of 
April  26,  1901,  it  is  provided  that  generals  of  infantry  and 
cavalry,  and  chiefs  of  staff  of  corps  and  divisions  are  to  be 
detailed  to  artillery  firing  schools  for  instruction  in  material 
and  fire  action  of  artillery.  The  course  lasts  three  weeks 
and  is  of  a  practical  character.  To  illustrate  the  action  of 
artillery  in  attack  and  defense,  infantry  and  cavalry  units 
stationed  in  the  vicinity  take  part  in  the  exercises,  for  which 
a  special  allowance  of  ammunition  is  made. 


VII.-SWEDEN. 


[Reported  by  Lieut.  Col.  William  K.  Livermore,  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States  Military  Attache, 
Copenhagen  and  Stockholm.] 


INFANTRY. 

The  Course  of  Instruction. 

The  course  of  instruction  consists  of  preparatory  drills, 
school  shooting,  drills  in  estimating  and  measuring  distances, 
and  field  shooting,  or  a  systematic  course  of  drills  in  fire  fight. 

PREPARATORY   DRILLS. 

The  preparatory  drills  are  divided  into  loading,  pointing, 
aiming,  firing,  and  gallery  shooting  drills. 

Loading. — For  drills  in  loading,  dummy  cartridges  are 
used.  The  men  are  drilled  in  loading  in  all  positions,  at  first 
slowly  and  then  by  degrees  more  rapidly.  Finally  they  are 
drilled  in  loading  while  in  motion  and  with  cartridges. 

For  practice  in  quick  loading  the  men  are  drilled  in  mov- 
ing the  mechanism  quickly  backward  and  forward,  at  first 
without  cartridges  and  then  with  dummies. 

Pointing. — Pointing  is  first  practiced  standing,  then  lying, 
with  or  without  support,  and  then  kneeling.  The  soldier  is 
also  taught  to  acquire  the  habit  of  taking  good  aiming  posi- 
tions behind  such  objects  as  can  be  used  for  protection  and 
for  support  to  the  gun,  kneeling  on  both  knees,  crouching  or 
sitting  down.  For  practice  in  placing  the  butt  against  the 
shoulder,  the  men  are  first  practiced  in  bringing  the  gun  in 
the  direction  of  the  target  by  the  quickest  movement ;  and 
then  in  placing  the  head  in  position  on  the  butt,  and  the 
index  finger  of  the  right  hand  so  that  its  middle  joint  rests 
against  the  trigger,  which  is  thereby  pressed  somewhat  back. 
Gymnastic  exercises  with  the  rifle  are  practiced  as  prepara- 
tory to  the  position  drill.  The  object  of  the  drills  is  to 
strengthen  the  muscles  which  are  mostly  called  into  play  in 
shooting.     These  are  the  muscles  of  both  shoulders  and  arms, 

(139) 


140  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

the  work  of  which  consists  in  raising  the  rifle  to  the  firing 
position  and  keeping  it  there  as  steadily  as  possible.  No 
regular  time  is  assigned  for  these  drills,  but  usually  about 
five  or  ten  minutes  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  hour  of 
shooting  drill.  In  gallery  shooting  and  school  shooting  these 
drills  are,  however,  practiced  only  at  the  end  of  the  exercise, 
so  that  the  men  may  not  be  tired  during  the  shooting. 

First  the  gun  is  brought  slowly  from  the  position  of  order 
arms  to  that  of  aiming,  as,  it  is  said,  "The  strength  of  the 
movement  is  increased  by  the  time  taken  to  make  the  move- 
ment, not  by  the  number  of  times  the  movement  is  made. 
All  the  movements  are  to  be  made  slowly.  The  left  arm  to 
be  exercised  as  much  as  the  right." 

The  drill  is  also  to  be  practiced  with  a  gun  in  each  hand, 
the  guns  are  lifted  by  command. 

With  the  object  of  increasing  the  i)ower  of  the  left  arm  to 
support  the  gun  and  of  strengthening  the  right  wrist,  the  gun 
is  brought  up  to  the  firing  position  at  the  command  "With- 
out aim.  Point,"  and  is  kept  there  for  a  period  which  is 
gradually  increased  to  one  minute ;  the  gun  is  also  held  up 
with  one  hand. 

When  the  right  wrist  is  so  well  drilled  that  the  gun  can  be 
kept  in  pointing  position  without  the  assistance  of  the  left, 
the  strength  can  be  increased  by  repeatedly  extending  and 
bending  the  right  arm. 

Aiming. — The  instruction  begins  by  explaining  the  prin- 
ciples for  aiming. 

The  aiming  drills  begin  by  teaching  the  men  to  correct  the 
line  of  sight.  This  is  done  by  placing  a  gun  provided  with  a 
diopter  in  correct  position  of  aim.  Each  man  must  observe 
this  and  afterwards  regulate  the  diopter  himself. 

When  the  man  has  learned  to  get  the  correct  line  of  sight, 
he  is  instructed  in  directing  the  piece  at  a  target. 

The  same  drills  are  then  repeated  without  the  diopter. 

The  men's  skill  in  aiming  is  then  tested  by  a  so-called  mov- 
ing point  of  direction.  At  a  distance  of  15  meters  a  sheet  of 
paper  is  fixed  on  the  wall,  and  the  gun  is  directed  against 
some  part  of  the  paper.  On  the  paper  is  held  a  small  target 
for  gallery  practice.  The  target  is  then  moved  horizontally 
and  vertically,  and  each  man  in  succession  without  touching 
the  gun  says  when  he  finds  that  the  target  is  in  the  line  of 


SWEDEN.  141 

sight.  The  man  who  moves  the  target  puts  a  small  pencil 
mark  on  the  place  indicated.  This  is  done  three  times.  The 
three  points  thus  indicated  are  then  connected  by  straight 
lines  and  the  triangle  thus  formed  shows  the  error  in 
aiming. 

The  men  are  then  taught  how  to  make  allowance  for  wind 
and  other  influences  that  affect  the  trajector}^  For  this  pur- 
pose a  target  for  gallery  practice  is  so  fixed  that  it  can  turn 
on  its  center  of  gravity.  The  point  is  marked  which  on 
account  of  disturbing  causes  should  be  the  average  point  of 
impact  for  the  gun  in  question,  and  the  man  must  then  indi- 
cate what  point  he  should  aim  at  to  hit  the  center. 

The  gun  is  placed  at  15  meters  distance  from  the  target, 
and  the  man  must  direct  it  so  as  to  counterbalance  the  deflec- 
tion. The  target  is  then  turned  half  around,  and  if  the  line 
of  sight  then  hits  the  marked  point,  the  aim  has  been  cor- 
rectly taken. 

When  the  man  can  point  correctly  he  is  taught  to  aim  first 
with  support,  then  without  support,  lying  and  kneeling,  and 
finally  standing.  In  these  drills,  especially  where  a  support 
is  used,  the  aiming  can  be  controlled  by  mirrors,  which  are 
screwed  on  the  ground  behind  the  sight. 

Pulling  the  Trigger. — The  instructor  first  shows  how 
the  gun  is  to  be  fired  by  crooking  the  index  finger  of  the  right 
hand  without  jerk  until  the  firing  pin  is  released.  The 
instruction  proceeds  gradually,  first  with  support  while  lying 
or  standing,  and  then  without  support.  Attention  is  at  first 
fixed  on  the  movement  of  the  index  finger,  but  afterwards  the 
gun  is  directed  against  the  target  and  the  instructor  observes 
and  controls  it  by  means  of  a  mirror. 

Drills  in  pulling  the  trigger  should  be  practiced  at  each 
school-shooting  drill. 

Loading,  Pointing,  Aiming,  and  Firing,  Combined. — 
After  going  through  a  course  of  preparatory'  drills,  they  prac- 
tice them  all  together,  and  in  connection  with  drills  in  esti- 
mating distances.  The  targets  should  be  such  as  would  be 
reciuired  in  war. 

Knapsacks  of  gradually  increasing  weight  are  carried  dur- 
ing the  practice. 

Gallery  Practice. — The  object  of  gallery  practice  is  to 
serve  as  a  direct  preparation  for  the  school  shooting  and  to 
give  practice  in  the  use  of  the  sight  at  long  distance. 


142 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


The  distance  for  gallery  practice  is  always  15  meters.  The 
targets  are  like  those  used  when  firing  with  loaded  ammuni- 
tion, but  are  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  distance  (fig.  1). 


1^5^  cpi^  _^ 


I 

^'1 


^ 


Fig.  1. 


The  300-meter  sight  generally  is  used  for  gallery  shooting. 

For  the  drills  in  the  use  of  the  sight  at  long  distances  the 
aim  is  taken  at  a  low  point  of  direction,  and  the  hits  are 
caught  on  a  higher  target. 


SCHOOL  SHOOTING. 


The  school  shooting  includes  precision  drills  and  applica- 
tion drills,  singly  and  in  squads. 

The  object  of  precision  drills  is  to  acquire  accuracy  in  firing 
at  an  ordinary  target  and  to  lay  the  foundations  of  fire 
discipline. 

The  object  of  the  application  drills  is  to  give  practice  in 
shooting,  against  field  targets,  to  develop  fire  discipline,  and 
the  knowledge  of  the  results  which  can  be  expected  from 
firing. 

Ordinary  targets  are  used  for  precision  drills  (fig.  2). 


SWEDEN. 


143 


The  targets  for  the  application  drills  are  half  figures  and 
one-third  figures  (figs.  3,  4,  5,  and  6). 

They  are  usually  pasted  on  boards  170  centimeters  high 
and  180  centimeters  wide.     When  using  three  one-third  size 


.AS.Cjrh 


-_i_ 


± 


Fig.  3. 


figures  pasted  on  a  board  the  figures  should  be  evenly  divided 
on  the  board  and  a  vertical  line  should  be  drawn  at  40  centi- 


^-Aoc!n-^ 


Fig.  4. 


i 


1^  -ty£m^  ^ 


Jk..if 


Fig.  5.  Fig.  6. 

meters'  distance  on  each  side  of  the  central  line  of  the  target 
(fig-.  0). 


144  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

On  targets  with  pasted  figures  the  lower  part  is  shaded  by 
dashes  or  gray  color  to  represent  the  cover  behind  which  the 
target  is  supposed  to  appear. 

To  each  practice  ground  is  assigned : 

One  officer  as  chief,  the  necessary  number  of  officers  or 
underofficers  as  detachment  commanders,  and  the  necessary 
number  of  underofficers  as  squad  commanders. 

Shooting  squads,  one  to  each  target;  one  or  two  men  to 
each  target  as  markers,  and  one  underofficer  for  each  group 
of  four  targets,  to  have  charge  of  the  markers  for  these  tar- 
gets, and,  if  the  shooting  is  directed  against  more  than  one 
group  of  targets,  one  officer  for  the  markers'  detachment'. 

If  the  practice  ground  is  arranged  with  swing  targets,  one 
man  for  each  signal  apparatus,  and  if  the  ground  is  arranged 
for  fixed  targets,  one,  or,  when  shooting  at  long  distances  and 
in  windy  weather,  two  buglers  or  drummers,  and  finally,  men 
for  the  necessary  posts  as  sentries. 

At  precision  drills,  which  are  not  competitive,  the  squad 
commander  orders  the  position  for  firing,  the  placing  of  the 
sight,  and  the  aim.  When  the  command  "Fire"  has  been 
given  by  the  commander,  the  man  himself  fires  when  he  is 
ready.  When  the  man  has  fired,  he  reports  to  the  squad 
commander  how  the  line  of  sight  seemed  to  be  directed  with 
relation  to  the  center  of  the  target,  at  the  moment  he  fired. 

The  squad  commander  takes,  during  the  shooting,  a  place 
from  which  he  can  observe  the  whole  firing  without  causing 
the  man  any  discomfort.  He  observes  whether  the  man  han- 
dles his  gun  properly,  and  tries  during  the  drill  by  means  of 
the  controlling  mirror  to  observe  the  errors,  and  gives  the 
necessary  information  and  instruction,  but  avoids  disturbing 
the  man  while  shooting. 

During  individual  application  drills,  and  during  competi- 
tive precision  drills,  the  men  must  have  more  freedom,  but 
are  still  under  the  supervision  of  the  squad  commanders.  If 
the  ground  is  arranged  for  swinging  targets  each  shot  is 
usually  marked  as  soon  as  it  is  fired. 

When  the  ground  is  arranged  for  fixed  targets  the  mark- 
ing, as  a  rule,  is  made  after  every  second  or  third  shot. 

In  application  drills  in  detachments,  the  respective  detach- 
ment chiefs  bring  the  detachment  to  the  firing  position,  and 
order  the  fire  according  to  the  drill  regulations.  The  mark- 
ing, as  a  rule,  is  done  after  the  shooting  is  completed. 


SWEDEN.  145 

Marking. — When  marking  on  a  target,  the  value  of  the  hit 
is  first  given,  and  then  the  position. 

The  value  of  the  hit  is  given  by  holding  the  disk  in  the 
center  of  the  upper  side  of  the  target  for  hits  in  the  bull's- 
eye  (5) ;  in  the  upper  right  corner  of  the  target  for  hits  in  the 
ring  (4). 

The  position  of  the  hit  is  given  immediately  after  by  plac- 
ing the  center  of  the  disk  just  over  the  hole  caused  by  the 
bullet  with  that  side  turned  to  the  firing  point  which  will  be 
best  visible. 

In  individual  firing  at  a  figure  target  when  the  shot  strikes, 
the  disk  is  held  straight  up,  and  then  the  position  of  the  hit 
is  indicated  as  above. 

When  shooting  by  detachments,  the  results  are  reported  by 
telephone,  or  by  showing  the  disk  to  the  left  for  the  tens,  and 
to  the  right  for  the  units. 

DRILLS   IN    ESTIMATING   AND  MEASURING   DISTANCES. 

Measuring  Distances. — Distances  are  estimated  in  the 
field  either  by  pacing,  or  by  measuring  on  charts,  or  with  a 
bicycle,  or  by  trial  shots.  Both  officers  and  men  should  be 
able  to  measure  distances  by  pacing.  All  subaltern  officers 
should  have  some  knowledge  of,  and  exercise  in,  the  use  of 
the  distance  measure  adopted  for  the  infantry. 

Estimating  Distances. — Men  are  practiced  in  estimating 
distances  up  to  GOO  meters;  officers  uj)  to  1,500  meters. 

Privates  who  seem  to  have  an  aptitude  for  it  are  also  to  be 
exercised  in  estimating  up  to  1,500  meters.  At  least  twelve 
men  in  each  company  are  selected  for  this  purpose.  They  are 
usually  detailed  as  helpers  in  estimating  distances,  and  as 
orderlies  during  a  fight. 

The  drills  begin  by  placing  men  at  a  distance  of  200,  400, 
and  600  meters  from  the  party  to  be  exercised,  and  these  men 
take  different  positions  according  to  previously  arranged  sig- 
nals. The  leader  explains  to  the  detachment  what  the  different 
distances  are,  how  the  fire  is  to  be  regulated,  etc.,  all  of  which 
the  men  must  try  to  impress  upon  their  minds.  This  drill  is 
repeated  as  often  as  necessary. 

When  some  accuracy  has  been  attained  in  these  and  other 
drills,  the  men  begin  to  estimate  distances  in  different  terrain. 

The  drills  are  made  from  different  shooting  positions,  es- 
pecially lying  down. 


146  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

For  educating  the  officers,  and  the  men  detailed  from  the 
ranks,  the  usual  course  of  instruction  is  taken  first,  and  then 
extended  to  distances  from  600  to  1,500  meters. 

The  instructions  explain  that,  as  a  rule,  the  distances  are 
estimated  too  long  in  the  dusk,  in  cloudy  and  rainy  weather; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  too  short  in  a  fine,  clear  atmosphere, 
especially  if  the  sun  shines  on  the  target;  too  long  over 
broken  ground  and  along  streets,  alleys,  and  roads,  but  too 
short  over  ground  sloping  away  from  the  observer,  over  water 
and  over  fields. 

The  drills  for  the  men  at  last  take  the  form  of  direct  prep- 
aration for  field  shooting. 

FIELD  SHOOTING. 

General  Rules. — The  field  shooting  must  take  place 
under  war  conditions. 

Field  shooting  is  of  two  kinds,  individual  and  by  detach- 
ment. 

Individual  Field  Shooting. — This  has  for  its  object,  to 
drill  the  soldier  in  adapting  the  skill  acquired  in  previous 
drills  to  the  conditions  which  will  occur  in  the  field,  to  teach 
him  to  adjust  his  aim  to  the  distance,  etc.,  and  to  take  the  best 
possible  position  for  shooting. 

In  individual  field  shooting  each  man  must,  therefore,  have 
his  target,  which,  as  far  as  possible,  must  be  similar  to  those 
presented  in  actual  warfare. 

The  man  must  be  left  entirely  to  himself  in  the  choice  of 
position  and  aim,  but  as  soon  as  he  has  fired  one  or  two  shots 
he  should  be  corrected  if  necessary,  and  to  this  end  the  shots 
should  be  marked. 

These  drills  are  best  conducted  by  platoons.  One  or  more 
targets  are  set  up  for  each  of  the  firing  points  fixed  by  the 
leader.  Each  man  in  succession  must  then  practice  against 
each  of  the  targets. 

Corrections  are  made,  under  the  direction  of  the  officer,  by 
the  underofficer  for  each  target,  who  is  the  score-keeper. 

The  leader  sees  that  the  drills  are  made  with  a  definite  ob- 
ject in  view. 

After  the  man  has  finished  shooting,  the  number  and  posi- 
tions of  the  hits  are  marked  and  recorded  in  his  presence. 

Field  Shooting  in  Detachments. — Field  shooting  in  de- 
tachments is  a  drill  which  as  far  as  possible  should  have  the 


SWEDEN.  147 

character  of  a  fight  with  loaded  ammunition.  In  this  exer- 
cise the  object  is  to  practice  the  leaders  in  guiding  the  fire 
under  conditions  as  near  like  those  occurring  in  the  field  as 
possible,  and  to  exercise  the  men  under  all  conditions,  in 
keeping  their  discipline  and  steadiness. 

These  drills  should  be  based  on  a  simple  supposition  and 
have  a  certain  object  in  view.  The  targets,  which  are  to  be 
like  those  in  war,  are  to  be  arranged  accordingly.  It  would 
be  well  if  the  movements  and  fire  of  the  enemy  could  be 
marked. 

Field  shooting  in  detachment  is  always  to  be  commanded 
by  a  specially  appointed  officer.  This  officer  arranges  the 
targets  according  to  the  supposition  given,  and  takes  the  nec- 
essary precautions  for  safety.  He  gives  to  the  respective 
commanders  of  the  shooting  detachments,  the  markers,  senti- 
nels, etc.,  the  necessary  instructions.  He  also  decides  when 
the  maneuver  is  to  commence,  follows  its  course  closely,  and 
stops  it  when  he  finds  cause.  As  many  officers  as  necessary 
are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  chief,  to  supervise  the  record, 
etc.  Orderlies  and  trumpeters  are  also  placed  at  his  disposal. 
After  the  end  of  the  drill  the  leader  holds  a  critique. 

The  results  of  the  shooting,  which  are  always  to  be  made 
known  to  the  men  taking  part  in  the  drill,  are  also  to  be  criti- 
cised in  the  critique  so  that  the  causes  of  good  and  bad  firing 
may,  as  far  as  possible,  be  made  clear  to  the  detachment. 

The  leader  makes  a  report  of  the  drill. 

APPORTIONMENT   OF  THE  DRILLS. 

Recruit  School. — The  preparatory  drills  are  practiced 
with  great  care.  The  recruit  must,  if  he  is  to  be  regarded  ap 
well  practiced  in  loading,  pointing,  aiming,  and  firing,  be 
able  to  deliver,  in  any  position  10  shots  a  minute  against  a 
target.  In  detachments  of  the  size  of  a  platoon  the  loading 
after  a  volley  must  be  done  in  two  seconds,  and  the  filling  of 
an  empty  magazine  in  eight  seconds. 

Gallery  shooting  is  conducted  according  to  a  prescribed 
table,  but  the  requirements  of  this  table  may  be  increased. 
For  cadre  recruits  are  assigned,  at  the  utmost,  200  rounds  per 
man,  and  for  the  conscript  recruits,  100  rounds. 

The  prescribed  school  shooting  for  the  cadre  recruits  of  the 
first  class  comprises : 

Precision  practice  of  nine  scores  of  5  shots  each  at  the  school 
or  ring  target — two  scores  at  100  meters,  one  at  200  meters, 


148  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

and  six  at  300  meters,  position  prone,  kneeling,  and  standing, 
and  with  and  without  rest,  as  proficiency  is  attained.  The 
requirements  are  that  all  shots  shall  be  hits,  3  of  the  hits  in 
the  first  five  scores  to  be  bull's-eyes,  in  the  last  four  scores  to 
be  bull's-eye  (5),  or  in  the  ring  (4). 

Individual  applied  practice,  nine  scores,  two  at  200  meters, 
at  the  one-third  figure,  two  at  300  meters,  at  the  half  figure ; 
requirements  3  and  2  hits,  according  to  position — prone  in 
first  scores,  and  2  shots  prone  and  3  kneeling  in  second  scores 
at  each  range ;  one  score  at  400  meters  at  the  full  figure,  and 
two  scores  at  target  6 ;  two  scores  at  GOO  meters  at  target  6 ; 
requirements,  2  or  3  hits  according  to  position  and  size  of 
target. 

The  detachment  applied  practice  is  of  two  kinds,  first, 
where  the  detachment  of  four  men  in  line,  prone  or  kneeling, 
fires  at  the  command  of  the  chief,  each  man  at  his  own  target, 
and,  second,  where  the  detachment  or  platoon,  also  in  closed 
line,  prone  or  kneeling,  fires,  by  command  of  the  chief,  at  a 
common  target.  Eleven  scores  are  fired  in  this  practice  at 
300,  400,  and  600  meters.  The  target  used  at  300  meters  is 
the  half  figure  and  at  the  other  ranges  target  6,  the  require- 
ment being  2  or  3  hits  when  firing  at  individual  targets,  and 
40  or  50  per  cent  of  hits  when  firing  at  a  common  target, 
depending  on  the  position,  prone  or  kneeling. 

After  going  through  the  apj)lied  drill  they  should,  if  occa- 
sion offers,  repeat  at  least  five  times  a  precision  score  of  5 
shots,  2  lying,  2  kneeling,  and  1  standing,  against  a  target  at 
300  meters,  with  no  restriction  as  to  result ;  250  cartridges  are 
allowed  each  man  for  this  practice. 

For  cadre  recruits  of  the  second  class,  drills  according  to 
a  program  fixed  by  the  regimental  chief,  with  25  cartridges 
for  each  man ;  for  conscript  recruits,  90  to  100  cartridges  for 
each  man. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  application  drills  packs  are  car- 
ried, increasing  in  weight  up  to  that  carried  in  the  field. 

Cadre  recruits  who  do  not  fulfill  the  requirements  of  a  drill 
should  repeat  the  same  before  the  next  drill  commences, 
under  careful  guidance.  The  scores  in  which  the  recruit  does 
not  qualify  after  the  first  shooting  are  to  be  repeated  if  occa- 
sion offers. 

To  qualify  in  shooting  the  cadre  recruit  must  be  able  to 
fulfill  the  demands  in  at  least  ten  scores  of  the  applied  drills, 


SWEDEN.  149 

where  each,  man  shoots  against  a  special  target,  and  in  at 
least  three  scores  against  a  common  target,  and  besides  this 
he  must  make  30  points  in  precision  drill  with  competitive 
scores. 

Individual  field  shooting  is  practiced  by  the  cadre  recruits, 
and  if  possible  also  by  the  conscript  recruits.  At  the  most 
20  cartridges  for  the  cadre  recruits  and  10  for  the  conscript 
recruits  are  assigned  to  each  ma,n. 

Field  shooting  in  squads  is  practiced  only  by  the  cadre 
recruits ;  20  cartridges  are  assigned  to  each  man. 

Regimental  Drills. — After  a  few  preparatory  drills, 
school  shooting  is  conducted  as  in  the  recruit  school,  but  on 
a  much  smaller  scale.  Packs  are  carried  in  all  the  drills. 
Field  shooting  in  detachments  is  practiced  yearly  with  20 
cartridges  for  each  man. 

Corporals'  and  Underofficers'  Schools. — After  a  few 
preparatory  drills,  school  shooting  is  carried  as  far  as  the 
supply  of  ammunition  permits. 

Field  shooting,  singly  and  by  detachment,  and  drills  in 
firing  against  disappearing  and  moving  targets,  are  conducted 
according  to  plans  fixed  by  the  respective  chiefs. 

To  each  pupil  are  assigned  120  cartridges. 

Practice  for  Officers. — No  more  ammunition  is  used 
than  the  object  in  view  demands. 

PRIZE  SHOOTING   AND   PRIZES. 

General  Rules. — Prize  shootings  are  held  by  each  regi- 
ment and  "corps"  or  battalion. 

The  right  to  take  part  in  the  regimental  competitions  is 
limited  to  -40;  in  the  "corps"  or  battalion  to  20  of  the  men 
who  have  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  the  school  shooting  at 
the  regimental  meetings  and  made  the  highest  number  of 
points  in  precision  drills. 

If  necessary  for  the  selection,  preliminary  competitions  may 
be  held. 

Prize  Shooting. — Prize  shooting  takes  place  during  the 
regimental  meeting  on  a  day  when  the  conditions  of  weather, 
etc.,  are  as  favorable  as  possible,  and  when  those  who  take 
part  have  not  recently  been  fatigued  by  long  field  maneuvers, 
etc. 

The  prize  shooting  is  arranged  and  conducted  like  a  pre- 
cision drill  "with  competitive  scores,"  excepting  that  no  pack 


150  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

is  carried,  that  officers  are  detailed  as  detachment  com- 
manders, and  as  chiefs  for  the  markers  and  that  for  each 
target  an  underofficer  is  detailed  to  watch  the  markers. 

Prizes. — The  prizes  are: 

Silver  medals  to  wear  on  the  breast ;  badges,  two  crossed 
rifles  of  red  cloth,  to  wear  on  the  right  forearm ;  and  money 
prizes;  and  as  a  distiiiction  and  reward  for  good  distance 
judges,  a  five-pointed  star  of  red  cloth  to  wear  on  the  right 
forearm. 

For  distribution  as  money  prizes  each  regiment  receives 
annually  300  kronor,  for  four  prizes  at  20  kronor,  eight  prizes 
at  10  kronor,  and  twenty-eight  prizes  at  5  kronor. 

Each  corps  or  battalion  receives  annually  150  kronor,  for 
two  prizes  at  20  kronor,  four  prizes  at  10  kronor,  and  four- 
teen prizes  at  5  kronor, 

A  "shooting  medal"  is  given  to  the  one  who  at  the  jDrize 
shooting  makes  45  points,  or  who  in  two  succeeding  years 
gets  43  points,  if  he  has  not  already  a  medal. 

Shooting  badges  are  also  given  to  those  who  receive  shoot- 
ing medals,  and  to  those  who  in  two  succeeding  years  have 
fulfilled  the  requirements  of  the  school  shooting  at  the  regi- 
mental meetings,  and  received  at  least  40  points  in  precision 
shooting. 

Those  who  receive  this  mark  of  distinction  are  called 
marksmen. 

Money  prizes  are  given  to  all  who  at  a  prize  shooting  make 
at  least  30  points. 

Prize  money  not  distributed  may  by  order  of  the  regimental 
commander  be  divided  between  the  "distance  judges." 

The  distribution  of  prizes  takes  place  in  the  presence  of 
the  whole  regiment,  corps  or  battalion. 


Figs.  2  to  6  represent  the  ordinary  forms  of  fixed  target. 
Disappearing  and  moving  targets  are  described  in  the  account 
of  artillery  practice. 

A  detailed  description  of  the  method  of  using  these  targets 
at  the  rifle  range  at  Rosersberg  would  be  equivalent  to  a 
treatise  on  applied  tactics. 

This  rifle  range  lies  at  a  distance  of  15  or  20  miles  from 
Stockholm  and  occupies  the  extensive  grounds  and  buildings 
of  an  old  palace  or  castle,  including  all  kinds  of  terrain  for 


SWEDEN,  151 

preliminary  and  field  practice.  Tlie  exercises  in  the  latter 
are  made  to  approach  as  nearly  as  possible  to  actual  warfare. 

Each  day's  exercise  is  intended  to  represent  part  of  some 
definite  military  ojDeration. 

The  general  and  special  ideas  are  explained  as  in  kriegs- 
spiel  or  at  grand  maneuvers.  The  men  know  only  as  much 
of  the  movements  of  the  enemy  represented  by  the  moving 
and  disappearing  targets  as  they  are  assumed  to  know  during 
the  battle  in  which  they  are  supposed  to  be  engaged.  These 
targets  are  placed  and  colored  as  much  like  the  enemy  as 
possible,  and  sometimes  no  little  skill  is  required  to  find  them 
when  they  appear  suddenly  at  a  considerable  distance  in  the 
shade  and  with  their  heads  just  showing  from  time  to  time 
behind  the  rocks  or  bushes.  The  discussion  which  follows 
each  day's  practice  gives  to  both  officers  and  soldiers  a  most 
vivid  and  practical  idea  of  the  use  of  varied  ground  in  mili- 
tary operations. 

This  rifle  range  and  infantry  shooting  school  is  also  a  col- 
lege for  the  development  of  the  scientific  as  well  as  the  prac- 
tical side  of  the  subject,  where  new  arms  and  new  methods 
are  thoroughly  tested,  studied,  and  discussed. 

CAVALRY. 

The  practice  in  shooting  for  the  cavalry  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  for  the  infantry  excepting  that  the  cavalry  do 
not  carry  their  knapsacks. 

They  are  practiced  in  estimating  distances  when  mounted 
as  well  as  dismounted. 

Apportionment  of  the  Drills. 

recruit  shooting. 

Gallery  shooting  is  conducted  according  to  a  prescribed 
table,,  but  the  requirements  of  this  table  may  be  increased  by 
order  of  the  commanding  officer.  One  hundred  cartridges 
per  man  are  allowed  for  these  drills. 

The  school  shooting  for  the  cadre  recruits  comprises  seven 
scores  of  5  shots  each,  at  ranges  from  100  to  300  meters,  firing 
at  the  school  target ;  requirements,  all  shots  to  be  hits,  and  3 
of  the  hits  in  each  score  to  be  in  the  bull's-eye  or  in  ring  4. 

Five  scores  of  individual  and  detachment  applied  practice, 
at  the  one-third  and  half  figures,  at  100,  200,  and  300  meters, 


152  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

and  at  target  6,  at  400  and  500  meters.  The  first  two  shots  in 
each  of  the  first  four  scores  are  delivered  individually,  and 
the  last  three  by  the  squad  in  line,  each  man  firing  at  his  own 
target.  In  the  fifth  score  the  men  of  the  squad  all  fire  at  the 
same  target. 

Twelve  shots,  5  lying,  5  kneeling,  and  2  standing,  are  fired 
in  competitive  shooting  at  the  school  target.  Requirements, 
25  points.  One  hundred  and  twenty  cartridges  are  allowed 
each  man. 

For  conscript  recruits  only  a  few  exercises  are  prescribed. 

Cadre  recruits  who  do  not  fulfill  the  requirements  in  a  drill 
should  repeat  the  same  under  careful  supervision.  The  scores 
in  which  the  recruit,  after  the  first  shooting,  does  not  qualify, 
must,  if  possible,  be  repeated. 

To  qualify  in  shooting  the  cadre  recruit  must  have  fulfilled 
the  requirements  in  at  least  two  of  the  applied  drills,  where 
each  man  shoots  against  his  own  target ;  in  at  least  one  drill 
where  the  shooting  takes  place  against  a  common  target ;  and 
in  precision  drills  with  competitive  scores  he  must  have  made 
at  least  25  points. 

Field  shooting  (single  and  in  squads)  is  practiced  only  with 
the  cadre  recruits.  Twenty  cartridges  per  man  are  allowed 
for  the  field  shooting,  besides  the  ammunition  left  over  from 
the  school  of  shooting. 

REGIMENTAL   DRILLS. 

A  short  course  of  school  shooting  is  held,  one  score  of  pre- 
cision practice  at  300  meters,  one  of  applied  practice  at  400 
meters,  and  12  shots  in  competitive  firing,  the  same  as  in  the 
recruit  school,  at  which  35  points  must  be  made  to  qualify. 

Preparatory  drills  for  field  shooting  and  field  shooting  in 
detachments  are  practiced  yearly.  Twenty  cartridges  are 
allowed  for  each  man  taking  part  in  these  drills. 

corporals'  and  underofficers'  school. 

The  preparatory  drills  are  repeated  and  school  shooting  is 
practiced  to  the  extent  allowed  by  the  ammunition  according 
to  a  program  fixed  by  the  respective  chiefs. 

Field  shooting,  if  possible  both  single  and  in  squads,  is 
practiced  according  to  the  instructions  of  the  respective  chiefs. 

Sixty  cartridges  are  assigned  to  each  pupil. 


SWEDEN.  153 

DRILLS   FOR   THE   OFFICERS. 

No  more  ammunition  is  used  than  necessary. 
Captains  and  senior  underoflficers   may  be  excused   from 
these  drills. 

PRIZE  SHOOTIXG. 

Prize  shooting  is  arranged  yearly  in  each  regiment. 

The  right  to  take  part  in  these  prize  shootings  in  a  regiment 
of  10  squadrons  is  limited  to  40,  in  a  regiment  of  5  squadrons 
to  20.  of  the  men  who  have  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  the 
school  shooting  in  the  regimental  drills,  and  who  in  the  pre- 
cision drill  with  competitive  scores  have  gained  the  highest 
number  of  points. 

If  necessary  for  the  selection,  preliminary  competitions  may 
be  held. 

REVOLVER   PRACTICE. 

The  course  of  instruction  consists  of  preparatory  drills,  and 
firing  with  loaded  ammunition. 

PREPARATORY   DRILLS. 

The  preparatory  drills  are  divided  into :  Handling  the  re- 
volver, positions,  etc.,  loading  and  unloading,  pointing,  aim- 
ing, pulling  the  trigger,  and  firing  with  blank  cartridges. 

Handling. — After  the  recruit  has  been  taught  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  revolver  and  the  use  of  its  several  parts,  he  is  taught 
to  take  the  positions  "Revolver  in"  and  "Revolver  out."  In 
the  former  the  pistol  is  in  its  holster,  in  the  latter,  as  shown 
in  fig.  10. 

Loading  and  Unloading  are  then  practiced  from  the  posi- 
tion of  "revolver  out." 

Pointing. — The  recruit  is  taught  to  take  the  position  with 
his  revolver  cocked,  the  arm  extended,  and  the  line  of  sight 
horizontal,  etc. 

Aiming. — The  line  of  sight,  etc.,  is  explained  to  the  recruit. 
As  the  revolver  is,  in  general,  used  only  for  short  ranges,  not 
over  40  meters,  the  point  of  aim  is  for  all  distances  taken  at 
the  upper  part  of  the  enemy's  body.  This  point  is  marked 
on  the  target  (fig.  7)  by  an  ordinary  patch  or  paster  used  to 
cover  the  bullet  holes. 

The  revolver  is  then  set  on  its  stand  (fig.  8),  the  line  of  sight 
directed  upon  the  bottom  of  the  patch  at  a  distance  of  10 
meters,  and  each  man  is  called  in  turn  to  see  how  it  is  pointed. 


154 


TARGET   PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Each  man  is  then  taught  to  j)lace  the  revolver  himself,  and 
criticise  the  position  taken  by  the  others. 

They  are  then  taught  to  aim  with  support.  The  man  first 
takes  the  position  of  aim  and  then  the  support  is  brought 
under  his  hand  (fig.  9).  He  is  then  told  to  retain  the  aim  as 
long  as  possible  and  when  either  his  arm  or  eye  is  tired,  or 
when  so  commanded,  to  take  the  position  of  "revolver  out." 

The  same  exercise  is  then  repeated  without  the  rest. 


Fig.  7. 

The  instructor  must  not  allow  the  pistol  to  be  pointed  at 
his  own  eye,  in  order  to  test  accuracy  of  the  aim,  but  it  may 
be  pointed  against  the  image  of  his  eye  in  a  mirror. 

Pulling  the  Trigger. — So  much  depends  upon  skill  in 
pulling  the  trigger  without  disturbing  the  aim  that  these 


SWEDEN. 


155 


exercises  should  be  repeated  frequently  at  unexpected  mo- 
ments, as  well  as  at  the  time  expressly  set  apart  for  the 
purpose. 

The  instructor  first  explains  how  to  pull  steadily  with  the 
finger  without  disturbing  the  aim  or  moving  any  other  part 
of  the  body;  first  with  support  (fig.  9),  and  then  without.  If 
he  can  not  keep  the  sight  on  the  target  long  enough  to  pull 
the  trigger  gradually  he  is  taught  to  come  to  the  position  of 
"revolver  out"  and  rest. 


Fig.  9. 


The  recruit  is  then  instructed  to  combine  the  movements 
of  pointing,  aiming,  etc.,  by  comrnand,  and  then  go  through 
the  motions  of  firing  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  shots  by  command; 
finally  at  the  command  "Fire,"  to  go  through  the  motions  of 
firing  six  shots. 


156 


TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Firing  with  Blank  Cartridges  is  practiced  to  accustom 
the  recruit  to  the  report  of  the  piece.  Sometimes  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  recruit  the  cartridges  are  not  all  loaded, 
so  that  his  unsteadiness  will  be  more  evident. 


Fig.  10. 

Each  man  fires  3  blank  cartridges  with  support,  and  3 
without. 

FIRING   WITH   LOADED   AMMUNITION. 

These  exercises  are  at  first  conducted  under  the  most  favor- 
able circumstances  of  weather,  light,  etc.,  and  nothing  is 
permitted  to  disturb  the  recruit  in  his  first  effort. 

The  target  is  a  colored  figure  of  a  soldier  (fig.  7).  A  hit 
within  the  4nner  oval  line  (bull's-eye)  counts  3,  the  next,  2, 
on  the  figure,  1. 

The  men  come  up  in  turn  and  fire  after  the  instructor  has 
given  the  command  "Point;  aim;  fire  1,  (2,  3,  etc.)  shots" 


SWEDEN. 


157 


or  simply  "Fire."  If  not  otherwise  specified,  6  shots  are  fired 
in  succession.  After  all  are  fired  and  the  man  comes  back 
to  the  position  of  "revolver  in,"  the  instructor  commands 
"Forward."  They  go  to  the  target  and  the  shots  are  marked 
and  covered  (see  figures). 


Fig.  11. 


APPORTIONMENT   OF  THE  EXERCISES. 


Officers  and  Underofficers. — Captains  and  older  under- 
ofificers  can  be  excused  from  the  school-shooting  drills. 


PRIZE  SHOOTING   AND  PRIZES. 


General  Rules. — Prize  shooting  is  held  by  each  regiment, 
and  corps  or  battalion. 

The  right  to  take  part  in  the  regimental  competitions  is 
limited  to  40,  in  the  "corps"  or  battalion  to  20,  of  the  men 
who  have  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  the  school  shooting 
at  the  regimental  meetings,  and  made  the  highest  number 


158  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

of  points  in  precision  drills.  If  necessary  for  the  selection, 
preliminary  competitions  may  be  held. 

Prize  Shooting. — Prize  shooting  takes  place  during  the 
regimental  meeting  on  a  day  when  the  conditions  of  air, 
weather,  etc.,  are  as  favorable  as  possible,  and  when  those 
who  take  part  have  not  recently  been  fatigued  by  long  field 
maneuvers,  etc. 

The  prize  shooting  is  arranged  and  conducted  like  a  pre- 
cision drill  "with  point  calculation"  excepting  that  no  pack 
is  carried;  that  officers  are  detailed  for  detachment  com- 
manders and  as  chiefs  for  the  markers,  and  that  to  each 
target  an  underofficer  is  detailed  to  watch  the  markers. 

Prizes. — The  prizes  are : 

Shooting  medals  of  silver  to  wear  on  the  breast. 

Shooting  marks,  two  crossed  rifles  of  red  cloth,  to  wear  on 
the  right  forearm ;  and 

Money  prizes,  and,  as  a  distinction  and  reward  for  good 
distance  judges,  a  five-pointed  star  on  red  cloth  to  wear  on 
the  right  forearm. 

For  distribution  as  money  prizes  each  regiment  receives 
annually  300  kronor,  for  four  prizes  of  20  kronor,  eight  prized 
at  10  kronor,  and  twenty-eight  prizes  of  5  kronor. 

Each  corps  or  battalion  receives  annually  150  kronor,  for 
two  prizes  of  20  kronor,  four  prizes  of  10  kronor,  and  fourteen 
prizes  of  5  kronor. 

A  "shooting  medal"  is  given  to  the  one  who  at  the  prize 
shooting  makes  45  points,  or  who  in  two  succeeding  years 
gets  43  points,  if  he  has  not  already  a  medal. 

Shooting  badges  are  also  given  to  those  who  receive  shooting 
medals  and  to  those  who  in  two  successive  years  have  fulfilled 
the  requirements  of  the  school  shooting  at  the  regimental 
meetings,  and  received  at  least  40  points  in  precision  shooting. 

Those  who  receive  this  mark  of  distinction  are  called 
marksmen. 

Money  prizes  are  given  to  all  who,  at  a  prize  shooting, 
make  at  least  30  points. 

Money  prizes  not  distributed  may,  by  order  of  the  regi- 
mental commander,  be  divided  between  the  "distance  judges." 

The  distribution  of  prizes  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  the 
whole  regiment,  corps,  or  battalion. 

Records  and  reports  are  required  of  all  kinds  of  shooting. 


SWEDEN. 
Revolver  practice  for  officers  and  underofficers. 


159 


No. 

Distance 

Xuiiilier 

ill  meters. 

ot  shots. 

1 

10 

3 

2 

10 

3 

3 

20 

3 

4 

•20 

3 

5 

30 

3 

6 

30 

3 

7 

15 

3 

8 

15 

3 

Manner  of  sliootiiig. 


With  siiiiport,  point  of  aim  marked 

Vitlumt  Kupport,  point  of  aim  markeii 

Willi  siipiiort,  point  of  aim  marked 

Without  support,  point  of  aim  marked 

Witli  support,  point  of  aim  marked 

■Without  support,  point  of  aim  marked 

With  support,  point  of  aim  marked 

Without  support,  point  of  aim  marked 


l{e<iuirement8. 


All  in  the  figure. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Ill  exercises  7  and  8  the  "weapon  is  used  as  a  self-cocker, 
and  tlie  time  for  each  exercise  is  limited  to  10  seconds  at  the 
most. 

Anyone  who  does  not  qualify  must,  in  a  subsequent  year, 
repeat  the  preparatory  exercises  as  well  as  those  in  this  table. 
Anyone  who  has  qualified  is  excused  from  preparatory  exer- 
cises and  practices  according  to  a  program  drawn  up  by  the 
chief  of  the  regiment,  with  the  restriction  that  the  target 
shall  be  the  figure  of  a  soldier,'  and  that  6  shots  shall  be  fired 
with  the  revolver  used  as  a  self-cocker  and  within  the  speci- 
fied time. 

MISCELLANEOUS   TROOPS. 

Special  tables  are  prepared  for  cavalry  sergeants  and  musi- 
cians, men  of  field  artillery,  the  field-telegraph  companies, 
for  the  train,  and  for  the  hospital  troops. 

In  all  cases,  except  for  the  officers  and  underofficers,  those 
men  who  do  not  qualify  shall,  whenever  there  may  be  an 
opportunity,  repeat  the  exercises  preceded  by  the  preparatory 
exercises. 

PRIZE  SHOOTING. 

Prize  competitions  are  held  annually  for  each  field-telegraph 
company,  and  each  company  of  hospital  troops. 

Prizes. — For  each  field-telegraph  company  one  of  20 
kronor,  one  of  10  kronor,  and  three  of  5  kronor. 

For  each  hospital  company  one  of  10  kronor  and  one  of  5 
kronor. 

field  artillery. 

The  field  artillery  is  equipped  with  S.l-centimeter  guns, 
model  '81  and  model  '94,  and  with  7.5-centimeter  guns,  model 
'87  (Krupp). 


IGO  tar(;et  practice  in  foreign  countries. 

Field  artillery  practice  in  Sweden  is  partly  regimental  and 
partly  special.  The  former  is  conducted  by  battery,  division, 
etc.,  the  latter  in  the  shooting  schools. 

The  exercises  in  firing  comprise  instruction  shooting  for 
recruits,  practice  shooting,  field  shooting,  and  prize  shooting. 

If  local  conditions  and  other  circumstances  permit,  there 
is  held  yearly,  during  the  repetition  exercises,  instruction 
shooting  for  recruits,  practice  shooting  and  field  shooting 
with  the  whole  battery,  field  shooting  in  division  with  the 
wliole  division,  and  prize  shooting. 

At  the  summer  exercises  of  the  constable  school,  practice 
shooting  and  field  shooting  by  battery. 

The  artillery  ammunition  assigned  to  every  regiment  for 
its  year's  shooting  is  divided  among  the  batteries  by  the 
regimental  commander  after  he  has  set  aside  what  is  required 
for  instruction  shooting,  prize  shooting,  and  the  constable 
school ;  and  he  then  takes  into  consideration  the  proficiency 
of  the  dift'erent  batteries,  so.  that,  as  far  as  possible,  all  the 
batteries  may  obtain  the  same  skill  in  shooting.  The  chief 
of  the  regiment  indicates  also  the  amount  of  ammunition 
which  is  considered  sufficient  for  field  shooting  by  division. 
He  also  instructs  the  proper  chief  of  division,  or  the  chief  of 
the  underofficers'  school,  about  the  distribution  of  the  ammu- 
nition for  various  kinds  of  shooting.  For  field  shooting  it  is 
not  definitely  stipulated  how  much  ammunition  should  be 
used.  The  battery  commander  only  indicates  what  kind  of 
ammunition  is  available,  and  the  shooting  continues  until  it 
is  stopped  by  the  leader  when  he  considers  that  the  object  has 
been  attained,  or  when  the  ammunition  has  been  used  up. 

The  captain  who,  as  below  indicated,  directs  the  instruction 
shooting  for  recruits,  draws  up  a  program  for  the  purpose, 
which  is  submitted  to  the  chief  of  division  who  supervises 
the  shooting. 

To  carry  out  the  practice  shooting,  and  the  field  shooting 
by  battery,  more  definite  instructions  are  given  by  the  chief 
of  division,  or  the  chief  of  the  underofiicers'  school,  and  for 
the  field  shooting  by  division,  by  the  chief  of  the  regiment. 

As  it  is  impossible  in  one  year  to  solve  all  the  problems 
which  should  be  considered,  it  is  necessarj^  to  follow  a  scheme 
prepared  beforehand  for  several  years. 

In  assigning  the  problems,  consideration  is  taken  of  the 
relative  proficiency  of  the  officers. 


SWEDEN.  161 

In  order  to  develop  uniformity  in  their  instruction,  the 
problems  should  be  interchanged  as  much  as  possible. 

After  the  battery  officers  have  reported  upon  their  task, 
explaining  how  it  was  solved  by  them,  and  the  motive  for  a 
possible  deviation  from  the  regulations,  the  leader  holds  a 
critique  in  the  held.  He  criticises  the  selection  of  the  firing 
position,  the  method  of  coming  into  battery,  the  battery 
commanders'  method  of  conducting  the  fire,  arrangements 
for  the  observer,  etc. 

Immediately  after  the  written  report  of  the  shooting  of  the 
school  has  been  received,  the  leader  holds  another  critique  in 
which  he  explains  how  far  the  problem  has  been  solved  and 
whether  it  was  solved  in  the  simplest  manner. 

Special  attention  is  given  to  the  effect  of  errors  in  obser- 
vation. 

In  criticising  field  shooting,  great  attention  is  given  to  the 
time  required  to  develop  an  effective  fire,  and  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  results  of  this  fire. 

POINTING   DRILLS. 

The  men  are  taught,  first,  to  point  the. gun  at  a  vertical  and 
then  at  a  horizontal  line,  then  at  a  bull's-eye,  then  at  a  target 
moving  forward  and  back;  and  then,  for  firing  with  canister, 
against  disappearing  targets;  and  finally  against  such  targets 
and  other  objects  as  would  be  presented  in  the  field. 

INSTRUCTION   SHOOTING   FOR   RECRUITS. 

The  object  of  this  shooting  is  partly  to  accustom  the  troops 
to  firing  with  loaded  ammunition,  partly  to  show  the  accu- 
racy of  the  piece  and  what  influence  the  changes  in  elevation 
and  azimuth  exert  on  the  shot,  and  partly  to  show  the  effect 
of  the  projectile  and  the  circumstances  which  influence  it. 

The  firing  is  conducted  with  one  gun  at  a  distance  of  from 
300  to  1,000  meters,  and  it  is  instructive  in  its  nature,  so  that 
no  change  is  made  in  elevation  or  azimuth,  or  in  setting  the 
fuse,  without  explaining  the  object  to  be  attained  and  show- 
ing immediately  the  result. 

In  firing  with  shells  the  influence  of  greater  or  less  accuracy 
in  pointing  is  shown,  as  well  as  that  of  changing  the  elevation 
or  azimuth,  that  of  the  point  of  burst,  and  of  the  nature  of 
the  ground  where  the  shell  strikes. 


1<!".*  TAKC.KT    I'KACTU  K    IN     FoKKKiN    < OlNTHIKS 

In  firing  with  shrapnel  it  is  shown  how  the  effect  of  this 
projectile  is  dependent  upon  the  height  and  distance  of  the 
point  of  burst,  and  how  this  ])oint  is  affected  by  the  elevation 
and  by  the  setting  of  the  fuse. 

In  firing  with  canister,  the  comparatively  slight  effect  of 
changes  in  pointing  is  explained  both  in  elevation  and  in 
azimuth. 

School  targets  and  platoon  targets  are  used  in  this  drill. 

PRACTICE   SHOOTING. 

This  shooting  is  to  bo  regarded  as  a  preparation  for  field 
shooting  and  has  for  its  object  to  instruct  and  practice  offi- 
cers, underofficers,  and  men  in  their  duties  in  shooting. 

Shooting  is  always  conducted  by  battery,  and  the  command 
is  taken  in  turn  by  the  second  captain  with  the  batterj',  and 
by  the  lieutenants,  who  are  chiefs  of  section,  and  sometimes 
by  the  ordinary  battery  chief.  During  these  shootings  the 
underofficers  have,  from  time  to  time,  opportunity  to  act  as 
chiefs  of  section,  and  the  second  constables  as  chiefs  of  piece. 
In  practice  shooting  at  a  constable  school,  as  many  pupils  as 
possible  should  have  an  opportunity  to  act  as  chief  of  piece. 

The  targets  are  platoon  figures  arranged  as  firing  lines, 
gun  and  limbers:  but  the  supports  and  the  cannoneers  should 
not  be  marked,  because  in  this  exercise  tlie  effect  is  not 
considered. 

The  firing  is  continued  only  iintil  the  sights  have  been 
atl justed  and  the  fire  has  been  regulated. 

Coming  into  position  should  be  execute<i  as  far  as  possible 
as  it  would  be  in  action. 

As  this  practice  is  essentially  for  instruction,  rapidity  is 
not  as  iniportant  as  it  is  in  field  shooting,  but  more  attention 
is  given  to  see  that  the  men  follow  their  instructions  accu- 
rately in  handling  the  gun  and  the  ammunition. 

No  instruction  is  given  during  the  shooting.  When  it  is 
necessary  the  fire  is  stopped.  The  regular  chief  of  the  bat- 
tery, especially  when  he  is  not  directing  it,  follows  the  course 
of  the  firing  in  order  to  learn  what  defects  in  instruction  are 
developed.' 

The  chief  of  division  or  chief  of  the  underofficers'  school  is 
present  at  the  practice  shooting  and  acts  as  a  leader. 


SWKDEX.  163 

FIELP  SHOOTIXG   BY   BATTERY. 

The  object  of  this  shooting  is  to  accustom  the  battery  chief 
to  direct  the  fire,  aud  to  teach  the  rest  of  the  persouuel  their 
duties  in  action. 

If  local  circumstances  permit,  every  field  exercise  should 
be  based  on  a  tactical  problem  which  is  given  to  the  battery 
chief  by  the  leader  immediately  before  the  firing  is  to  take 
place. 

In  accordance  with  the  problem,  the  battery  chief  selects 
the  site  to  be  occupied  by  the  battery,  unlimbers,  and  selects 
the  kind  of  projectile  if  this  has  not  been  specified,  and  opens 
fire. 

If  local  conditions  do  not  permit  of  giving  a  tactical  basis 
to  the  problem,  the  leader  tells  the  chief  of  battery  where  the 
battery  should  unlimber  and  at  what  target  he  should  fire. 

In  firing,  the  regulations  for  drill  and  for  shooting  should 
be  strictly  observed.  Especial  weight  is  given  to  the  rapidity 
of  finding  the  range  and  completing  the  trial  shooting. 

The  shooting  is  watched  by  the  chief  of  di^-ision,  or  chief 
of  the  underofficers'  school  who  acts  as  leader. 

BY   DIVISION . 

This  shooting  is  chiefly  designed  to  practice  chiefs  of  divi- 
sion in  directing  the  fire  of  two  or  more  batteries,  and  to 
accustom  the  rest  of  the  personnel  to  those  circumstances 
that  make  the  firing  of  a  division  more  difficult  than  that  of 
a  separate  battery,  and  to  the  greater  difficulty  in  hearing 
the  word  of  command  and  observing  the  shots,  etc. 

As  the  chief  of  di\-ision  can  not  have  an  opportunity  to 
perform  his  functions  in  directing  the  fire  unless  it  be  kept 
up  for  some  time,  as  much  ammunition  is  allotted  for  each 
field  practice  by  division  as  the  supply  on  hand  permits. 

The  exercises  are  so  planned  as  to  require  the  immediate 
direction  of  the  chief  of  di\*isiou.  This  is  effected  by  the 
changing  of  the  target  for  the  whole  division,  or  by  orders 
from  the  regimental  commander  to  the  chief  of  division  either 
to  divide  the  fire  of  the  division  between  different  targets 
or  to  concentrate  it  against  the  same  target,  and  it  is  left 
for  the  chief  of  division  to  specify  how  this  change  shall  be 
effected. 


]64  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

At  times  also  in  division  shooting  a  target  should  appear 
against  which  the  battery  chiefs  should  turn  their  fire  with- 
out waiting  for  orders  from  the  chief  of  division. 

The  regimental  commander  himself  should  act  as  leader  at 
this  shooting  and  conduct  the  critique  of  the  work  of  the 
chief  of  division.  The  critique  of  battery  commanders  is 
incumbent  upon  the  chief  of  division. 

PRIZE   COMPETITION. 

Each  gun  fires  8  shells  with  bursting  charge  and  smokeless 
powder  against  a  target  placed  at  600  meters'  distance,  the 
target  being  3.3  meters  square  and  provided  with  a  bull's-eye 
of  a  diameter  of  40  centimeters,  and  seven  rings  of  respec- 
tively 40,  60,  80,  100,  130,  140,  and  160  centimeters'  radius. 
The  first  3  shots  are  trial  shots  and  are  fired  with  the  same 
elevation  and  deviation.  The  center  of  impact  is  marked 
with  a  small  point  and  the  chief  of  piece  makes  the  necessary 
alterations  in  the  elevation  and  azimuth  corresponding  to  the 
distance  of  the  center  of  impact  from  the  center  of  the  target. 

After  these  adjustments  have  been  made,  the  remaining  5 
shots  are  fired  for  "points."  Each  hit,  the  center  of  which 
falls  in  the  bull's-eye,  is  counted  for  8  points;  between  the 
bull's-eye  and  the  first  ring,  7  jjoints;  the  first  circle  and 
second,  6;  the  second  and  third,  5;  the  third  and  fourth,  4; 
the  fourth  and  fifth,  3 ;  the  fifth  and  sixth,  3 ;  the  sixth  and 
seventh,  1 ;  other  hits,  0. 

The  number  of  hits  for  each  gun  is  recorded  and  the  time 
occupied  in  the  shooting  for  points,  which  is  counted  for  each 
gun  from  the  firing  of  the  fourth  shot  to  the  firing  of  the 
eighth  shot,  inclusive ;  and  the  order  in  which  the  prizes  are 
distributed  is  regulated  only  by  the  number  of  points  received 
if  the  time  occupied  in  the  shooting  for  points  has  not  exceeded 
two  minutes,  unless  a  projectile  has  either  failed  to  hit  the 
target,  or  only  hit  in  the  ricochet,  in  which  case  no  prize  can 
be  given. 

If  an  even  number  of  points  be  made,  the  distance  of  the 
hits,  made  during  the  shooting  for  points,  from  the  center  of 
the  target  is  measured  and  preference  is  given  to  the  one  for 
which  the  sum  of  these  distances  is  the  least.  When  the 
sums  are  the  same  the  preference  is  decided  by  drawing  lots. 

Shooting  medals  of  silver  are  distributed  yearly  to  the 
chiefs  of  piece  who  in  the  prize  shooting  have  received  prizes 


SWEDEN.  165 

and  at  least  32  points,  and  a  requisition  for  the  shooting 
medals  is  sent  to  the  inspector  of  artillery  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  competition,  accompanied  by  drawings  showing  the 
hits,  provided  that  more  than  32  points  have  been  obtained. 
Shooting  medals  are  given  but  once  to  the  same  person. 

SHOOTING  SCHOOL. 

Shooting  School  for  Senior  Officers. — The  purpose 
of  the  school  is  to  give  the  officers  of  the  field  artillery  prac- 
tice in  making  a  correct  and  rapid  application  of  the  shooting 
regulations,  and  to  give  them  clear  and  correct  ideas  about 
the  use  and  effect  of  artillery  fire,  also  to  give  the  nnder- 
officers  of  the  field  artillery  practical  skill,  as  well  in  firing  as 
in  other  duties  which  may  devolve  upon  them  in  the  field. 

The  school  is  under  the  orders  of  the  chief  of  ordnance 
and  inspector  of  artillery,  who  inspects  it  and  directs  its  work 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  moment,  as  well  as 
those  published  as  general  orders. 

The  personnel  of  the  school  consists  of  the  staff,  officers 
ordered  to  go  through  the  course,  the  helpers,  an  instruction 
battery,  and,  during  that  part  of  the  course  which  is  fixed  by 
general  orders  for  each  year,  the  underofficers'  schools  of  the 
first  and  second  Svea  artillery  regiments,  which  are  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  this  school. 

The  staff  consists  of  the  chief,  the  adjutant,  2  range  officers 
(one  of  whom  is  range  captain),  surgeons,  veterinary  sur- 
geons, 3  underofficers  (2  range  underofficers  for  duty  with  the 
range  captain,  and  1  in  the  kitchen),  and  4  privates. 

The  officers  commanded  to  go  through  the  course  consist 
of  2  regimental  officers  and  10  captains. 

The  helpers  are  1  first  constable,  24  privates,  and  3  artisan 
soldiers  (1  smith  and  2  wood-workers). 

The  personnel  of  the  battery  of  instruction  consists  of  1 
chief  of  battery,  3  chiefs  of  detachment,  1  battery  adjutant, 
6  to  7  sergeants,  40  constables,  1  detachment  trumpeter,  and 
54  privates,  of  which  1  is  a  hospital  soldier  and  2  are  horse- 
shoeing soldiers. 

Besides  the  horses  of  the  regimental  officers,  the  school  is 
allowed  3  to  6  service  horses,  35  saddle,  and  60  draft  horses. 

The  personnel  is  appointed  for  each  course  of  instruction 
as  follows : 

Officers  belonging  to  the  staff,  the  regimental  officers,  and 
the  chief  of  the  instruction  battery,  are  appointed  by  the  king 


166  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

on  the  recommendation  of  the  chief  of  ordnance  and  inspector 
of  artillery. 

The  remaining  ofl&cers,  the  nnderofficers  who  belong  to  the 
staff,  and  the  artisan  soldiers  are  appointed  from  the  regi- 
ment which  the  king  designates,  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  chief  of  ordnance  and  inspector  of  artillery. 

The  surgeon  and  veterinary  surgeon  are  appointed  by  the 
medical  department. 

Of  the  privates  of  the  staff,  two  are  appointed  from  the  regi- 
ment to  which  the  chief  of  the  school  belongs,  and  one  from 
each  of  the  regiments  to  which  the  regimental  officers  ordered 
to  the  course  belong. 

Of  the  helpers,  eight  privates  are  ordered  from  each  of  two 
artillery  regiments,  and  one  constable  and  eight  privates  from 
the  Norrland  artillery  regiment. 

Of  the  personnel  of  the  instruction  battery,  the  battery  ad- 
jutant and  the  detachment  trumpeter  are  ordered  from  the 
regiment  to  which  the  chief  of  the  battery  belongs,  and  the 
nnderofficers  and  privates  are  detailed  from  the  different  regi- 
ments. 

The  ten  captains  take  the  course  of  instruction  before  they 
are  appointed  chiefs  of  the  battery. 

Sergeants  who  have  shown  special  ability  in  aiming  are 
detailed  as  chiefs  of  piece,  and  constables  who  are  likely  to 
become  nnderofficers  are  detailed  as  pupils  in  the  instruction 
battery. 

The  privates,  who  are  assigned  to  the  instruction  battery, 
are  used  as  drivers,  horse-holders,  and  grooms. 

The  school  is  established  at  the  MarmA,  range  and  is  allowed 
to  use  tha buildings  and  the  materiel,  etc.,  of  the  artillery 
there.  It  begins  each  year  on  the  day  appointed  by  general 
order  and  lasts  42  days. 

Duties,  Instruction,  and  Practice. — The  chief  of  the 
school  directs  the  education  and  is  responsible  for  the  disci- 
pline and  maintenance  of  order. 

The  chief  of  the  instruction  battery  is  under  the  direct 
command  of  the  chief  of  the  school,  and  regulates  the  duties, 
as  well  as  the  education  and  drills  of  the  battery. 

The  range  captain,  who  is  under  the  direct  command  of  the 
chief  of  the  school,  observes  strictly  his  instructions  with 
regard  to  the  shooting  as  well  as  those  of  the  regimental 


SWEDEN.  167 

officers  in  command,  and  is  responsible  for  order  on  the  firing 
ground,  and  for  the  record  of  the  results  of  firing. 

The  education  in  the  school  is  as  follows : 

For  the  officers  ordered  to  take  the  course. — Shooting  drills 
with  field  pieces  in  battery  and  in  division,  and  shooting  drills 
with  revolver. 

Besides  this,  the  chief  lays  out  a  course  of  short  lectures  by 
the  officers,  illustrated,  if  possible,  by  examples,  explaining 
the  shooting  regulations,  the  method  of  shooting  with  field 
artillery  in  foreign  countries,  the  construction  and  use  of 
the  distance  measurer,  fire  tactics,  etc. 

With  the  instruction  battery. — Theoretical  education,  as  a 
necessary  preparation  for,  or  explanation  of,  the  practical 
drills ;  drills  with  the  field  pieces  in  connection  with  aiming 
drills,  partly  under  difficult  circumstances;  shooting  drills 
with  field  pieces;  drills  in  accurate  management  of  the  gun, 
the  mechanism  and  the  ammunition;  shooting  drills  with 
revolver;  setting  up  telephone  wires  and  telephoning;  field 
fortification  drills;  the  use  of  maps  on  the  terrain,  and  the 
solution  of  tactical  problems. 

In  the  shooting  drills  with  guns  in  battery  attended  by  the 
officers,  the  regimental  officers  act  as  leaders  under  tlie  super- 
vision of  the  chief  of  the  school,  the  captains  act  as  battery 
commanders;  the  chiefs  of  section  ordered  to  the  instruction 
battery,  commonly  as  chiefs  of  section;  the  sergeants  ordered 
to  the  same  battery  (with  the  exception  of  the  battalion  adju- 
tant) alternately  as  commanding  the  fourth  section,  if  chiefs 
of  piece,  or,  as  the  chief  of  the  school  so  directs,  as  chiefs  of 
section ;  and  the  constables  ordered  to  the  same  battery  serve 
in  turn  as  chiefs  of  piece. 

The  division  shooting  takes  })lace  when  the  underofficers' 
schools  of  the  first  and  second  Svea  regiments  (artillery)  are 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  chief  of  the  school  by  general 
order,  and  at  these  exercises  the  division  is  commanded  in 
turn  by  the  regimental  officers  ordered  to  the  course,  and 
the  instruction  battery  and  the  underofficers'  school  batteries 
by  the  officers  attending  the  school. 

Other  Regulations. — The  ammunition  allotted  each  year 
by  a  general  order  for  the  exercises  of  this  school  is  supplied 
from  the  magazine  at  Marma,  when  required  by  the  chief  of 
the  school. 

The  personnel  ordered  to  the  school  receive  pay  according 
to  regulations  and  the  budget  for  the  scliool. 


168  TARGET   PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

SHOOTING   SCHOOL   FOR  SUBALTERN   OFFICERS. 

The  object  of  the  school  is  to  give  subaltern  officers,  and  if 
possible  also  the  sergeants,  as  complete  an  education  as  pos- 
sible in  the  duties  of  chief  of  section  in  firing. 

The  school  is  under  the  orders  of  the  chief  of  ordnance  and 
inspector  of  artillery,  who  acts  as  inspector  and  gives  the 
necessary  instructions  about  its  duties  which  are  in  addition 
to  those  fixed  by  general  orders. 

The  personnel  of  the  school  consists  of  the  staff,  the  officers 
and  sergeants  ordered  to  go  through  the  course,  the  helpers, 
and  an  instruction  battery  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  school. 

The  staff  consists  of  the  chief,  who  is  the  teacher,  the  adju- 
tant, the  second  teacher,  the  range  officer,  surgeon,  veterinary 
surgeon,  and  3  underofficers  (2  range  underofficers  for  service 
with  the  range  officer,  and  1  for  the  kitchen). 

The  chief,  the  adjutant,  the  second  teacher,  and  the  range 
officer  are  detailed  for  each  course  by  the  king,  on  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  chief  of  ordnance  and  inspector  of  artillery. 

The  surgeon  and  veterinary  surgeon  are  assigned  by  the 
medical  corps. 

Instructions  about  the  orders  for  the  rest  of  the  personnel 
of  the  school  are  given  by  the  king,  on  recommendation  of 
the  chief  of  ordnance  and  inspector  of  artillery. 

Duties,  Instruction,  and  Practice. — The  chief  of  the 
school  regulates  the  course  of  instruction  and  is  responsible 
for  the  discipline  and  the  maintenance  of  order.  During  the 
drills  with  the  guns  he  acts  as  leader. 

The  second  teacher  helps  the  chief  with  the  instruction  as 
directed.  At  shooting  drills  with  the  guns,  he  generally 
commands  the  battery. 

The  range  officer,  who  is  under  the  direct  command  of  the 
chief  of  the  school,  observes  strictly  his  instructions  with 
regard  to  the  firing,  and  is  responsible  for  the  order  on  the 
range  and  for  the  record  of  the  results  of  firing. 

The  chief  of  the  instruction  battery  may,  at  shooting  drills 
with  guns  if  the  chief  of  the  school  so  decides,  command  the 
battery,  and  is,  like  the  ordinary  chiefs  of  section  and  chiefs 
of  piece,  altogether  at  the  disposal  of  the  chief  of  the  school. 

The  education  includes  shooting  drills  with  field  guns  in 
battery,  at  which  the  officers  and  sergeants  ordered  to  the 
course  act  in  turn  as  chiefs  of  section  and  chiefs  of  piece;  ex- 
ercises in  making  reports  and  keeping  records  of  the  results 


SWEDEN. 


169 


of  the  firing ;  practice  in  measuring  distances  with  the  instru- 
ment used  by  the  field  artillery ;  shooting  drills  with  revolver. 

Besides  these,  the  chief  and  the  second  teacher  deliver  short 
lectures,  illustrated,  if  possible,  by  examples  from  the  results 
of  the  shooting,  on  topics  connected  with  these  subjects. 

The  ammunition  assigned  to  the  school,  which  is  regulated 
each  year  by  a  general  order,  is  obtained  on  requisition  by 
the  chief  of  the  school  from  the  depots. 

The  personnel  ordered  to  the  school  receive  pay  according 
to  regulations  and  the  budget  for  the  school. 

EXPENDITURE   OF   AMMUNITION. 

During  the  year  1901  the  expenditure  of  ammunition  at 
the  regimental  practice  was  as  follows : 


First  Svea  artillery  regiment 

First  Gota  artillery  regiment-. 

Wendes  artillery  regiment 

Noniaud  ai'tillery  regiment 

Second  Svea  artillery  regiment 
Second  Gota  artillery  regiment 
Gotland  field  corps  artillery 


Shells. 

Shrapnel. 

100 

1,600 

500 

1,300 

180 

3,000 

250 

1,550 

250 

1,.550 

100 

1,600 

50 

500 

5,000 
3,000 
5,500 
4,500 
4,500 
5,000 
600 


EXTRACTS   FROM    REPORT   OF   THE   SHOOTING    SCHOOL   FOR  SENIOR  OFFICERS 
OF   THE   FIELD   ARTILLERY,    1901. 

The  course  lasted  from  June  9  to  July  20. 

The  officers  ordered  to  attend  the  course  were  10  captains, 
3  lieutenants  for  chiefs  of  section,  11  sergeants,  40  constables, 
1  detachment  trumpeter,  82  cannoneers,  and  3  artificers.     ■ 

Thirty-five  saddle  and  60  pack  horses  were  placed  at  the 
disposition  of  the  school. 

Two  underofficers'  school  batteries  were,  for  a  short  time, 
stationed  at  MarmS,  and  took  part  in  the  exercises  for  two 
days  in  division  with  two  batteries  without  loaded  ammuni- 
tion for  three  days'  target  practice  in  divisions. 

The  exercises  at  the  school  were  as  follows : 

1.  Lectures,  "skjutspel,"  critique,  etc hours..  31i 

2.  Making  reports  and  records do 72^ 

3.  Revolver  shooting do 13 

4.  Shooting  with  loaded  cartridges  - do...  16 

5.  Sharpshooting  with  guns  in  battery series. .  90 

6.  Sharpshooting  with  guns  in  division do...  10 

7.  Drill  in  division  without  loaded  ammunition hours..       4i 

8.  "Witnessing  the  sharpshooting  of    the  constable 

schools do...       9 


170  TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  shooting  school  expended  during  the  exercises  the  fol- 
lowing 8-centimeter  ammunition  with  smokeless  powder : 

Shots. 

8-centimeter  shrapnel,  model  '93 3,300 

8-centimeter  shrapnel,  model  '88 500 

8-centimeter  shells,  model  '87 100 

8-centimeter  canister,  model '87 100 

Total 4,000 

The  firing  took  place  every  day,  and  the  allowance  of 
ammunition  proved  to  be  well  calculated  for  the  time  of  the 
shooting. 

The  following  record  shows  the  distribution  of  the  work : 

When  shooting  by  battery :  Shots. 

Against  nnlimbered  battery 51 

Against  battery  in  gun  column — 3 

Against  battery  protected  by  guns  or  other  means 7 

Against  skirmish  line,  standing  still 26 

Against  skirmish  line  with  reserve 5 

Against  advancing  skirmish  line 5 

Agair  st  skirmish  line  advancing  at  a  run 5 

Against  retreating  skirmish  lines 5 

Against  companies  in  file,  deploying  to  skirmish  line  --  2 

Against  companies  in  line,  deploying  to  skirmish  line  .  6 

Against  advancing  cavalry 4 

Against  retreating  cavalry 2 

When  shooting  by  division : 

Against  nnlimbered  battery 8 

Against  advancing  skirmish  line 3 

Against  retreating  skirmish  line 3 

Against  advancing  cavalry  — 1 

Targets  were  changed  46  times  during  the  series.  In  one 
series  indirect  fire  was  practiced. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  SUBALTERN  SHOOTING  SCHOOL  FOR 
FIELD  ARTILLERY,  1900. 

The  course  lasted  from  the  18th  of  May  to  the  8th  of  June. 
Twenty-one  subaltern  officers  were  detailed  to  attend  the 
course,  an  average  of  3  to  each  regiment. 
The  following  exercises  were  carried  out : 

Hours. 

1.  Lectures,   alternately  by  both  teachers,  as  an  introduc- 

tion and  preparation  to  the  other  exercises  and  to  dis- 
cuss the  results  of  the  shooting. 8 

2.  Aiming  exercises 2| 

3.  Practice  in  battery _ 4i 


SWEDEN.  171 

Hours. 

4.  Sharpshooting  with  the  guns 40 

5.  Shooting  with  revolver 4 

6.  Distance  measurement 9 

7.  Shooting  with  reduced  charges  and  practice  with  ex- 

plosives --- 14 

8.  Making  out  reports  and  records  of  the  firing.  - 98 

9.  DisciTSsing  reports,  etc 6 

The  lectures  were  on  the  following  topics : 

Aiming  drills  and  means  for  aiming,  the  duties  of  the 
detachment  chiefs  and  the  gun  commanders  during  firing  in 
battery ;  the  making  up  of  reports  and  firing  records,  Unges 
distance  measurer,  the  distribution  of  fire,  explaining  the 
results  by  examples  from  the  shooting,  and  the  scout  service. 

The  shooting  school  fired  over  1,000  shots  from  8-centi- 
meter guns  with  smokeless  powder. 

At  the  firings  the  officers  were  divided  as  follows : 

Detachment  chief  s 3 

Gun  commanders 6 

Records  and  reports 4 

Timing  shots 1 

On  duty  at  the  target  as  observers,  etc 3 

To  follow  the  shooting  and  keep  the  shooting  books 3 

The  work  was  distributed  in  this  manner  every  forenoon 
and  changed  in  the  afternoon,  so  that  the  same  pupil  had 
several  opportunities  to  practice  different  duties  in  turn. 

TARGETS. 

Targets  for  elementary  or  precision  shooting  are  compara- 
tively simple.  Those  for  field  shooting  are  more  and  more 
complicated  until  in  the  final  exercises  they  form  a  perfectly 
dramatic  representation  of  the  hostile  forces  advancing, 
retreating,  firing,  or  charging  under  all  the  conceivable  cir- 
cumstances of  actual  warfare. 

Figures  and  Designs. — The  targets  are  usually  composed 
of  figures  which  represent  the  object  on  which  the  fire  is  sup- 
posed to  be  directed,  and  these  figures  are  arranged  separately 
or  collectively  according  to  the  nature  of  the  problem. 

These  figures,  etc.,  are  made  of  wood,  pasteboard,  or  cloth. 

Wood  is  used  for  permanent  targets  of  small  dimensions, 
and  for  certain  special  problems. 


172 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Pasteboard  is  generally  preferred  because  it  is  easily  worked 
and  is  quite  durable. 

Cloth  is  used  for  disappearing  and  moving  targets. 

The  designs  are  classified  as : 

(a)  School  targets. — Generally  of  wood,  5  meters  square 
(fig.  12).  The  dimensions  are  given  in  meters  and  centi- 
meters. 


»--   -- 

■-0 

:  * 

lil 

Fig.  12. 


wood    and   of    the 


(6)  Pr'ize   shooting   targets. — Also   of 
dimensions  specified  for  the  competition. 

(c)  Field  targets. — Figures  representing  men,  horses,  etc., 
viz: 

Infantry  figures  of  full  length  or  of  half,  one-third,  or  one- 
fourth  the  full  length,  of  the  form  and  dimensions  shown  in 

figs.  13,  14,  15,  16,  and  17.  They 
are  made  of  pasteboard  tacked  on 
a  skeleton  of  wooden  laths. 

Cavalry  figures  are  sketched 
on  cloth  of  the  pattern  shown  in 
fig.  18.  The  dimensions  in  milli- 
meters. The  cloth  is  tacked  on 
a  wooden  frame.  Those  for  the 
horses  without  riders  are  similar 
in  design. 

Artillery  figures  are  made  of 
pasteboard.  That  for  the  piece 
unlimbered  is  shown  in  fig.  19; 
for  the  limber,  fig.  20:  for  the 
personnel  the  infantry  figures  are 
used.     For  artillery  limbered  up 


SWEDEN. 


173 


the  figure  of  a  caisson,  fig.  21;  for  the  mounted  men,  fig.  22; 
for  horses  without  rider,  fig.  23. 


!«.  _  £yM.  _  ^ 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  14. 


"^' 


^1 


It-  Sl^-  -  ^ 


Fig.  16. 


I 

J rj- 

i-L  _ 

^!    !  V  ! 


Fig.  17. 


1^ 


174 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Simple  Targets. — Suitable  targets  for  artillery  practice 
are  f  ornied  by  combining  several  figures,  and  arranging  tliem 
in  different  formations. 
Tliey  are  classified  as : 
(a)  Immovable  targets. 
(6)  Appearing  and  disappearing  targets, 
(c)   Movable  targets. 
{d)  Balloon  targets. 
(«)  Immovable  targets. — Infantry  in  firing  line,  or  in  close 
order  when  it  is  supposed  to  be  exposed  to  view,  is  represented 
by  lying  or  kneeling  figures,  only  when  in  motion  by  whole 
fisures. 


Fig.  19. 


Infantry  in  fighting  formation  is  represented  by  a  line  of 
one-third  or  half  figures  arranged  according  to  the  terrain. 


3^- 


.'390  _ 
Fig.  20. 


V'^hH-  - •■i^'^  — *"'j4 


Fig.  21. 


Company  reserves  are  placed  about  300  meters  behind  the 
firing   line,   well   sheltered,  and  if  possible  hidden   by  the 


SWEDEN. 


175 


ground.  When  a  large  body  of  troops  is  to  be  represented, 
the  reserves  in  close  order  are  so  disposed  as  to  be  withdrawn 
from  the  observation  of  those  who  are  firing.  When  close 
columns  are  concealed  by  the  ground  the  targets  are  made  of 
pasteboard  screen  on  wooden  frames  1.8 
meters  high  and  10  meters  long,  and  on 
them  are  sketched  whole  or  half  figures. 
Three  such  screens  in  each  line  represent  a 
platoon,  etc. 

Immovable  cavalry  targets  are  not  used 
for  the  fire  of  field  artillery. 

For  artillery  targets  a  bat- 
tery unlimbered  is  represented 
by  artillery  and  infantry  figures 
set  up  as  shown  in  fig.  24.  Only 
in  exceptional  cases,  when  there 
is  no  shelter  available,  are  the 
rest  of  the  personnel,  the  lim- 
bers, horses,  etc.,  represented; 
they  are  then  placed  in  line 
or  column  on  one  side  of  the 
battery. 

The  number  of  figures  rep- 
resenting a  six-gun  battery  is 
Fig.  22.  Fig.  23.  givcu  as  follows : 


■CI 
-1 


Ordinarily.      Exceptionally. 


Front  figures  (various  sizes).. 
Profile  figures  (various  sizes) _ 

Horse  figures 

Gun  figures 

Limbers  without  horses 

Limbers  with  horses 


(b)  Rapidly  appearing  and  disappearing  targets. — An  in- 
fantry target  arranged  to  appear  suddenlj^  is  shown  in  fig.  26. 
It  swings  on  two  pivots  (fig.  25)  at  the  top  of  the  frame,  and  is 
held  in  a  horizontal  position  by  a  prop.  A  long  cord  or  wire 
is  led  to  a  place  of  safety  from  which  the  prop  is  removed  at 
the  proper  time ;  the  target  then  drops  to  the  vertical  position 
shown  in  the  figures  and  becomes  visible  from  the  firing  point. 
The  cord  or  wire  is  sometimes  protected  from  the  fire  by  lay- 
ing it  in  a  furrow.  Figs.  27  and  28  represent  a  target  arranged 
with  a  counterpoise  to  appear  or  disappear.     When  the  cord 


170 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


is  loose  the  counterpoise  is  so  adjusted  that  the  target  falls 
hack  a  little  below  the  horizontal  position.     When  the  cord' 
is  tightened  it  rises  to  the  position  shown  in  the  figures. 
This  target  is  used  in  the  open  or  behind  earthworks,  etc. 

UU  I  I  I  i_L|  I  I  I  I  I  I  ■  I  . 

W        W        I'T',        W        W        W 


-s 


-I 


Fig.  24. 


c 


-J^, 


Fig.  25. 


5) 


}L     r. 

U  „  Jl  „ 

U    _    i!    „■ 

^S 

^~ 

^S 

7^' 

r^l 

Fig.  26. 


A™  Jl^  Jl^iL 


TT^  11      11^  n 


II  ^    I!  ^\  II  II    i], 


\VJ 


Fig.  27. 


An  infantry  target  at  first  visible,  but  arranged  to  disappear 
under  fire,  is  made  like  that  shown  in  fig.  26,  but  with  the 
pivots  at  the  foot  of  the  frame  instead  of  at  the  top.  Several 
groups  are  represented  side  by  side  and  one  or  more  are  made 
to  fall  from  time  to  time  by  pulling  out  the  props. 

Figs.  29  and  30  represent  a  full-length  infantry  target  made 
to  appear  and  disappear.  It  falls  back  to  the  horizontal  posi- 
tion when  the  cord  is  loosened  and  is  brought  back  when  the 
cord  is  tightened. 

Thin  lines,  patrols,  outposts,  etc.,  are  represented  by  sev- 
eral targets  like  that  shown  in  fig.  31.  The  target  and  the 
prop  are  both  hinged   to  the  footboard  and  when  struck, 


SWEDEN. 


17^ 


the  vibration  releases  the  prop  from  the  shallow  notch  in 
the  target  so  that  both  fall  down. 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  29. 


For  cavalry  the  figures  are  drawn  on  a  cloth  target  10 
meters  long  and  2  meters  high;  swinging  horizontally  on  a 
pivot  made  of  an  old  artillery  axle  and  wheel  (figs.  32,  33). 


7\ 


?f^ 


n 


V 


It  is  turned  normal  to  the  plane  of  fire  to  make  it  appear, 
and  parallel  to  make  it  disappear. 

The  artillery  targets  (fig.  35)  are  operated  in  the  same  way 
as  the  infantry  targets ;  each  of  the  figures  for  the  guns,  lim- 
ber, personnel,  etc.,  may  have  its  own  cord,  or  some  may  be 
made  automatic,  or  all  may  be  made  to  rise  together. 


178 


TARGET   PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


(c)  Movable  targets. — Movable  targets  are  moved  on  trams 
or  sleds.  Tramways  are  more  expensive  but  more  serviceable 
for  targets  moving  across  the  line  of  fire  either  perpendicu- 
larly or  obliquely  so  that  they  can  be  properly  protected. 
Figures  of  all  kinds  are  mounted  on  cars  or  wagons  with  four, 
six,  or  eight  wheels,  and  hauled  by  motors  or  by  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  track. 

Sleds  are  more  common  and  are  used  for  all  targets  moving 
in  the  line  of  fire.  The  runners  are  of  wood  or  sheet  iron. 
Sleds  with  wooden  runners  are  heavier  and  are  considered 
more  serviceable  for  heavier  targets,  especially  when  moving 
over  a  soft,  moist,  and  comparatively  level  field.  But  sleds 
with  sheet-iron  runners  like  those  shown  in  fig.  38  are  most 
commonly  used.  The  runners  are  of  corrugated  iron  1  milli- 
meter thick ;  a  wooden  block  is  bolted  to  each  runner  by  the 
same  bolts  that  hold  the  two  crossbeams.  The  runners  are 
connected  also  by  braces  in  front  and  behind,  and  the  iron  or 
steel  cords  that  are  attached  to  the  blocks  serve  also  as  diag- 
onal braces. 


JL 


Fig.  31. 


These  lines  are  led  by  snatch  blocks  to  a  distant  part  of 
the  field,  2,000  meters,  more  or  less,  where  it  is  convenient 
to  apply  the  motive  power  by  horses  or  steam  or  otherwise. 
When  practicable  the  part  of  the  line  most  exposed  to  the 
projectiles  is  laid  in  a  furrow. 

When  the  figures  on  the  sled  are  fixed,  the  sled  is  so  turned 
that  they  will  present  their  edges  to  the  firing  point  until 
they  are  to  become  visible,  and  so  that  the  sled  is  turned  on 
starting. 

Figures  39,  40,  41,  and  42  represent  devices  by  which  in- 
fantry targets  are  made  to  rise  on  the  sled  when  the  cord  is 
tightened,  and  figure  43  a  target  with  two  sets  of  figures 
which  impersonate  a  skirmish  line  advancing  by  rushes  and 
then  lying  down  to  fire. 


SWEDEN. 


179 


180 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IX   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Figure  44  represents  the  frame  for  a  movable  cavalry  tar- 
get tliat  disappears  by  turning  on  its  hinges. 


Figure  45  is  the  frame  of  a  disappearing  and  movable 
artillery  target,  and  46  a  sled  which  shows  a  target  for  artil- 
lery unlimbered  (like  figure  19)  when  it  halts,  and  limbered 
up  (like  figure  21)  when  it  is  in  motion. 


Fig.  35. 

(d)  Balloon  targets. — If  there  is  a  suitable  elevation  on  the 
firing  ground,  a  staging  is  built  on  it,  10  or  15  meters  high, 


Fig.  37. 


SWEDEN. 


ISl 


on  wliich  is  displayed  a  target  representing  a  balloon  7  meters 
in  diameter  with  its  gondola  and  lines.  If  no  such  elevation 
is  available,  a  balloon  is  made  of  paper  and  inflated  with  hot 
air.     To  maintain  the  heat  a  sponge  saturated  with  alcohol 


Fig.  38. 

is  held  under  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  balloon  by  cross 
wires.     The  alcohol  is  ignited  when  the  balloon  is  to  ascend. 


±.]t 


S0£  _ 

Fig.  39. 


Fig.  40. 


It  is  controlled  by  a  marline  cord  which  leads  to  a  place  of 
shelter  from  which  the  balloon  can  be  raised  and  lowered. 


182 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


For  longer  practice  a  balloon  is  made  of  varnislied  linen 
and  filled  with  water  gas  or  illuminating  gas.  This  balloon 
is  controlled  by  a  fine  steel  wire,  and  is  raised  and  lowered 
by  a  windlass  or  other  machinery. 


Fig.  41. 

Combined  Targets. — If  a  terrain  is  supposed  to  be  occu- 
pied by  infantry,  targets  that  fall  automatically  (fig.  31)  are 
set  up  in  the  proper  places  to  represent  patrols,  and  infantry 
figures  to  represent  a  firing  line,  at  distances  of  one  or  two 
paces  along  such  a  line  as  it  would  probably  occupy.     Com- 


pany reserves  are  represented  by  full-length  figures  300  meters 
behind  the  line,  if  possible  well  sheltered.  They  are  repre- 
sented by  such  targets  as  those  shown  in  fig.  30. 


Fig.  43. 


If  the  firing  line  is  to  l)e  reenf orced  it  can  be  represented  by 
suddenly  appearing  targets  (fig.  26),  which  must  be  set  up  on 
the  firing  line  before  the  firing  begins. 


SWEDEN. 


183 


If  the  reserve  is  also  to  advance  to  reenforce  the  firing  line 
it  is  represented  by  sleds  as  shown  in  fig.  -43.  The  sleds  are 
advanced  from  the  reserve  to  the  firing  line,  and  this  advance 


^ 


^ 


X 


^^ 


V 


3 


SOASD 


-^r 


^ 


^ 


Fig.  44. 


is  made  by  rushes  nnless  the  distance  is  too  short,  or  unless 
the  ground  affords  them  great  protection  while  advancing. 


-e- 


^J£  _ 

Fig.  45. 


-&- 


Fio.  46. 


When  a  large  body  of  infantry  is  to  be  advanced  over  the 
fire-swept  zone  to  the  assault,  it  can  be  represented  as  shown 
in  fig.  47. 


Fig.  47. 

The  limit  must  first  be  fixed  to  which  the  assault  can  come. 
Up  to  this  limit  at  distances  of  about  100,  75,  or  50  meters 
a,part,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground,  are  placed 


184 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


appearing  and  disappearing  targets  (figs.  27,  28).  By  the  side 
of  them  are  laid  the  drag  lines  for  the  sleds  on  which  are 
brought  np  figure  targets  like  fig.  43.  At  somewhat  greater 
distances,  about  1,500  to  2,000  meters,  are  placed  disappearing 
full-length  figures  (fig.  30),  and  besides  them  sleds  are  kept 
concealed.  When  the  exercise  is  to  begin,  there  are  first 
shown  the  disappearing  full-length  figures  which,  after  they 
come  under  effective  fire,  disappear.  Then  the  sleds  are  put 
in  motion.  If  the  ground  is  open,  after  the  artillery  fire  has 
become  effective,  the  sleds  can  advance  by  rushes ;  otherwise 
the  sleds  move  up  at  once  to  the  line  of  figure  targets  most 
remote  from  the  firing  point.  The  sleds  stop  and  are  metamor- 
phosed into  a  firing  line  and  the  stationary  figure  targets 


Fig.  49. 


appear.  After  the  fire  has  continued  some  time,  or  the 
following  sled  has  reached  the  firing  line,  all  the  sleds  set 
themselves  in  motion  to  the  next  figure  line,  which  then 
becomes  visible,  and  the  former  line  disappears.  In  this 
manner  the  attack  advances  from  line  to  line  up  to  the  most 
advanced  figure  line.  If  the  drag  lines  are  laid  around  snatch 
blocks  about  100  meters  from  the  firing  point,  even  the  final 
assault  can  be  represented. 

By  similar  means  the  retreat  of  an  infantry  force  can  be 
represented. 

If  the  advance  of  a  large  body  of  cavalry  is  to  be  repre- 
sented, six  or  eight  sheet-iron  runners  are  laid  side  by  side 
at  distances  of  4  meters  and  a  great  sled  is  built  on  them  and 
hauled  by  several  drag  lines  (fig.  50). 


SWEDEN. 


18i 


Artillery. — To  represent  the  advance  of  artillery,  tlie  fig- 
ures (fig.  21)  should  be  set  up  on  6  sleds  15  meters  apart. 
The  drag  lines  of  three  sleds  are  united  and  the  movement 
is  so  regulated  that  they  keep  abreast  of  each  other.  If  the 
battery  in  advancing  is  to  halt  and  unlimber,  sleds  with 
double  targets,  like  fig.  46,  are  employed. 

When  a  large  body  of  artillerj^  is  to  advance,  the  drag 
lines  are  so  disposed  that  they  will  move  together. 


Fig.  50. 

Fire  of  the  target. — When  it  is  desirable  to  represent  the 
fire  of  a  target,  several  cartridges  are  laid  in  a  row  parallel 
to  the  line  of  fire  in  front  of  each  gun  and  connected  by  a 
slow  fuse  so  that  each  will  be  ignited  in  turn. 

Signals. — Both  semaphores  and  telephones  are  used  for 
communication  between  different  parts  of  the  range. 

HEAVY    ARTILLERY. 
PREPARATORY   EXERCISES. 

After  the  use  of  the  sights,  and  the  nature  of  the  trajectory, 
have  been  explained  to  the  men  they  are  taught  to  direct  the 
piece  upon  some  object  that  is  described  to  them.  If  no 
natural  objects  present  themselves,  targets  on  a  reduced  scale 
or  even  objects  on  a  wall  painting,  are  used. 


186 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


The  time  required  to  direct  the  piece  is  observed  and  re- 
corded. 

All  kinds  of  pieces,  and  all  the  different  methods  of  aiming, 
are  practiced  in  this  manner,  both  direct  and  with  an  auxil- 
iary point  of  aim.  Fig.  51  shows  an  apparatus  for  making  a 
disappearing  target;  fig.  52,  one  for  a  movable  target;  figs. 
53  and  54  are  objects  which  may  be  made  to  move  along  the 
apparatus. 

For  practice  in  atming  at  unseen  objects  a  gun  is  fired,  or 
a  cartridge  is  exploded  behind  a  hill,  and  the  piece  is  directed 
from  the  indications  of  the  smoke. 


W^   J^otiF 


Fig.  52. 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


Night  shooting  is  simulated  against  a  movable  point,  or 
against  a  target  either  fixed  or  movable. 

Prize  competitions  in  pointing  are  held  every  autumn. 

The  men  are  also  practiced  in  observation  of  shot  by  firing 
with  blank  cartridges,  the  explosion  of  the  shot  being  simu- 
lated by  cartridges  previously  laid  at  the  proper  distances 
and  exploded  as  ordered  by  telephone. 


FIRING   WITH    LOADED   AMMUNITION. 


Firing  with  loaded  ammunition  comprises  instruction  shoot- 
ing for  recruits,  practice  shooting,  field  shooting,  and  prize 
shooting. 


SWEDEN. 


18^ 


AVhen  circumstances  permit,  these  firings  are  conducted 
during  the  repetition  exercises,  except  the  prize  shooting,  and 
this  should  be  completed  before  October  1. 

The  ammunition  allotted  for  the  year's  shooting  is  divided 
among  the  companies  by  the  chief  of  the  corps,  after  reserv- 
ing what  is  required  for  recruits  and  prize  shooting.  It  is  so 
distributed  that  the  companies  may  as  far  as  practicable  re- 
ceive like  instruction  in  shooting.  As  it  is  impossible  in  one 
year  to  go  through  all  the  necessary  exercises,  it  is  necessary 
to  follow  a  program  laid  out  for  several  years  in  succession. 

The  shooting  is  conducted  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of 
field  artillery. 

Field  Shooting. — Field  shooting,  like  that  for  field  artil- 
lery, should  be  based  upon  some  tactical  supposition,  but  as 


Fig.  55. 

it  is  usually  impossible  to  vary  the  ground  very  much,  the 
changes  are  generally  made  in  the  character  and  movements 
of  the  targets.  If  practicable  the  same  targets  should  some- 
times be  fired  upon  simultaneously  by  two  widely  separated 
batteries  directed  by  the  same  ofiicer. 

Prize  Shooting  is  practiced  annually  with  an  8-centimeter 
gun  at  the  time  specified  by  the  chief  of  the  corps.  Each  gun 
fires  8  shells  against  a  target  set  up  at  a  distance  of  600  meters. 
The  target  is  3.2  meters  square  with  a  bull's-eye  40  centi- 
meters in  diameter,  and  circles  80,  130,  160,  200,  240,  280,  and 
320  centimeters  in  diameter. 

Hits  in  the  bull's-eye  count  8 ;  inside  of  the  first  circle  7, 
etc.  The  time  between  the  fourth  and  eighth  shot  should  not 
exceed  five  minutes. 


188 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IX   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


The  prize  shooting  is  conducted  on  principles  similar  to  that 
of  field  artillery. 

TARGETS. 

All  kinds  of  figures  may  be  set  up  at  points  visible  or 
invisible  from  the  guns. 

Torpedo  boat  targets  are  made  of  a  wooden  framework 
covered  with  a  network  or  with  strips  of  cloth  (figs.  55,  56, 
and  57). 


mm 


I      il|n  I      illi  I      im   I     nrrT 


^■•5 


T~niii  I    nil  I    iiifrT> 


Fig.  56. 


^ 


1^ /SOOnup. 

Fig.  57. 

EXTRACT  FROM  THE   REPORT  OF  THE  SHOOTING   SCHOOL  FOR  THE  ARMY  AND 
NAVY   FORTIFICATION   CORPS,  1900. 

The  session  lasted  from  the  1st  of  May  to  the  11th  of  June. 

Those  who  took  the  course  of  instruction  were  2  captains, 
3  subaltern  officers,  3  underofficers,  and  17  constables,  of  which 
2  captains  and  7  constables  were  from  the  artillery  corps  of 
the  navy. 

To  the  instruction  company  there  were  ordered  80  pupils, 
of  whom  10  were  from  the  artillery  corps  of  the  navy. 

The  daily  work  was  on  the  average  eight  hours. 

The  time  was  divided  for  the  officers  and  underofficers  as 
follows : 


Hours. 

45 
9 
9 


Lectures,  shooting  regulations  and  making  reports 

Distance  measuring 

Examination  of  materiel 

Visiting  the  forts  at  Vaxholm  and  Oscar  Fredericksborge 

and  Karlskrona - 

Bursting  drills,  etc  -- 

Firing  with  guns  and  revolver 128 


39 


Total 


338 


SWEDEN.  189 

The  school  shot  37  drill  series  and.  46  field  series  as  follows : 

Hours. 

Against  immovable  uncovered  target,  shell 4 

Against  immovable  uncovered  target,  shell  and  shrapnel.     19 
Against  immovable  uncovered  target,  shell  and  shrapnel-      4 

27 

Against  immovable  covered  target,  shell .- 4 

Against  immovable  covered  target,  shrapnel 3 

Against  immovable  covered  target,  shell  and  shrapnel. .-       2 

9 

Against  targets  representing  balloon,  shrapnel 3 

Against  marked  ship's  deck,  shell 1 

Against  towed  target,  and  distance  measure 17 

Against  towed  target,  shell 8 

Against  towed  target,  shell  and  shrapnel 16 

Against  anchored  target  on  the  sea,  and  mitrailleuse 2 

43 

Of  this  year's  shooting  the  one  which  took  place  on  the  23d 
of  May  with  a  24-centimeter  howitzer,  model  94,  was  especially 
interesting. 

From  this  shooting  it  is  apparent  that  the  pieces  in  question 
could  be  used  with  advantage  against  an  anchored  fleet  or 
even  against  a  large  anchored  vessel  in  windy  weather. 

The  target  represented  the  deck  of  the  German  armored 
vessel  Filrst  Bismarck ^  and  it  was  struck  by  not  less  than  45 
per  cent  of  the  shots,  although  the  wind  blew  with  a  force  of 
at  least  4,  that  is,  10  to  15  meters  in  a  second. 


In  connection  with  the  subject  of  target  practice  under 
"field  conditions,"  it  is  suggested  that  such  exercises  might 
be  made  to  conform  still  more  closely  to  reality  if,  after  offi- 
cers and  men  have  first  been  practiced  deliberately  in  this 
kind  of  firing,  the  problem  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  simu- 
late the  disturbing  influences  which  affect  both  officers  and 
men  in  action. 

This  can  be  effected  to  some  extent  if  they  understand  that 
a  few  seconds  more  or  less  may  turn  the  scale  of  the  battle 
for  or  against  them,  if  noncommissioned  officers  and  soldiers 
who  acquit  themselves  creditably  are  rewarded  by  prizes  or 
even  by  promotion,  and  if,  in  case  of  failure,  the  exercises 
are  repeated  under  more  arduous  conditions,  and  if  by  all 
possible  means  the  men  are  given  to  understand  that  their 
own  record  and  that  of  their  company  or  regiment  depends 
upon  their  exertions  for  each  fraction  of  a  second  during  the 
decisive  period. 


190  TARGET   PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

They  should  "understand  that  it  is  often  necessary  to  bal- 
ance carefully  the  advantages  of  running  to  the  firing  point 
with  the  disadvantages  of  arriving  out  of  breath. 

When  a  detachment  is  itself  exposed  to  hostile  fire,  those 
who  by  calculation  and  lot  are  found  to  be  killed  or  wounded, 
should  be  required  to  fall  out  or  at  least  to  cease  firing  for 
the  day,  thereby  reducing  the  fire  effect  and  chance  of  success 
of  the  detachment.  If  the  man  is  killed  because  he  has  wan- 
tonly exposed  himself  to  hostile  fire  it  might  be  advisable  to 
assign  him  such  extra  drills  or  practice  as  the  case  demands, 
and  proper  measures  of  discipline  should  in  all  cases  be 
applied  to  men  who  are  disposed  to  regard  the  exercise  as  a 
representation  and  not  as  a  reality. 


1 


VIIT.-SWITZERLAND. 

[Keported  liy  M;ij.  George  K.  Cecil,  Third  Infiintiy,  luited  States  Jlilitaiy  Attache,  Beruc.] 


In  Switzerland  skill  in  the  use  of  the  rifle  is  much  sought 
after,  and  male  citizens  of  all  ages  able  to  handle  the  rifle  are 
to  be  found  practicing  at  shooting  stands  as  members  of  the 
shooting  clubs  that  are  scattered  throughout  the  country. 
This  spirit  of  emulation  extends  so  far  that  a  very  large 
percentage  of  the  youths  have  attained  a  fair  degree  of 
proficiency  before  reporting  for  duty  at  the  recruit  schools, 
yet  in  these  recruit  schools  a  course  in  target  practice  is 
included. 

The  targets  used  are  shown  in  figs.  1  to  10b. 


cm 
Fig.  1. — Target  A. 


Prior  to  the  assembling  of  the  recruits  the  officers  and 
noncommissioned  officers  forming  the  cadres  for  the  schools 

(191) 


192 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


are  given  a  preliminary  course  in  individual  practice  with 
conditions  according  to  the  following  table : 


Distance. 

Target. 

Position. 

Conditions. 

Points. 

Hits. 

1      

Single  shots 

do 

Meters. 
300 
300 
400 
300 

A 
B 

C 
D 

9 
9 
5 
12 

4 

2 

Prone,  with  arm  rest__ 

4 

3           _     .       . 

-     do 

3 

4 .. 

Magazine  fiie__ 

Prone 

6 

The  conditions  to  be  filled  are  the  following : 
In  the  exercises  1  to  3  inclusive,  in  5  consecutive  shots, 
maximum  8  cartridges,  if  after  the  fifth  shot  the  required 
score  has  not  been  made,  another  shot  will  be  fired  and  the 


Fig.  2.— Target  B. 

last  5  considered,  and  if  the  required  number  of  points  and 
hits  have  not  yet  been  made,  another  will  be  fired,  and  so  on 
up  to  8  cartridges.  In  exercise  No.  4,  2  cartridges  will  be  put 
in  the  magazine;  the  soldier  will  fire  these  and  refill  the 
magazine,  which  holds  13  cartridges,  and  fire  them,  all  in 
forty  seconds.  If  he  fails  to  make  the  required  score,  he 
may  repeat  this  exercise  once  only. 

The  recruits  having  reported,  they  are  put  through  a  course 
of  sighting,  position,  and  aiming  drills  with  the  sights  adjusted 


SWITZERLAND. 


193 


to  distances  up  to  '2,000  meters,  first  with  rests  and  then  with- 
out, until  they  are  able  to  take  the  proper  positions,  hold  the 
piece  steady,  and  pull  the  trigger  without  flinching;  then  a 


?e 

^ 

in'6 

-4S -• 

JO 

AS 

J  9. 

^  -      -  -M 

•zyu 

Fig.  3. — Target  0. 


few  rounds  of  blank  cartridges  are  fired,  followed  by  a  few 
rounds  with  ball  cartridges  to  accustom  the  recruits  to  the 


1 

f5»^^^  ^^^  f^^^l 

■ 

*'    »  i: 

\ 

.          .// 

3 

•         » / 

* 

*          o  K 

; 

*         *^ 

♦        *  A^^ 

o 

*  ^,A^ 

L 

^k^^^ 

L--*^ 

! 

w- 

.:^^<:^.-... 

— \ 
1 

1 

.'?.'^ 

--•-45 ' 

19  J 

... 

-    -45- 

.10 

..- 

---45 - 

U'6; 

Fig.  4.— Target  D. 

noise  and  to  the  recoil.  For  this  preliminary  course  15  ball- 
cartridges  are  allowed,  and  all  the  exercises  are  in  front  of 
targets.     The  instructing  ofl&cer  is  given  great  latitude  in  the 


194 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


metliod  of  his  instruction,  only  so  that  no  man  shall  approach 
his  regular  practice  until  he  can  aim  and  fire  without  flinching, 
but  in  no  case  will  he  begin  his  regular  practice  before  the 
third  week. 

It  may  be  well  to  add  that  gallery  practice  finds  very  little 
favor,  and  is  seldom  resorted    to  in  the   instruction  of   the 
recruits,  though  five  cartridges  of  reduced 
strength  are  authorized    for  each   recruit, 
which  may  be  employed  after  what  is  known 
as   the   Gysi  system.     It  is 
claimed   that  they  are   not 
sufficiently   accurate   to  in- 
spire    confidence ;     besides, 
there     being 
no  recoil  and 
little 


L---  45cm ' 

Fig.  5. — Target  E 


45 -• 

Fig.  6. — Target  F. 


45----» 

Fig.  7.— Target  G. 


fS---- 

Fig.  8.— Target  H. 


report,  it  does  not  materially  tend  to  diminish  the  tendency 
of  nervous  men  to  flinch,  which  is  the  greatest  obstacle  to  be 
overcome. 

The  individual  jjractice  is  a  fire  with  conditions  according 
to  the  following  table : 


Distiinc. 

Target. 

Position. 

Conditions. 

Points.      Hits. 

1 

Single  slicits  ___ 
.  -do    . 

Meters. 
300 
300 
400 
300 
300 
200 
400 
500 
200 
300 

A 
A 
A 
A 
B 
B 
C 
I) 

c 

D 

8 
8 
6 
5 
8 
7 
4 
5 
i) 
10 

3 

2 

3 

3 

do 

Prone                __     .  . 

3 

4 

do 

Standing    .  __ 

2 

5-     „.         .     

..     do      ..     . 

Prone,  with  rest 

Kiici-liiig               _  _  _ 

4 

6 

do         

4 

7 

do    -_. 

2 

8 

._     -do 

K Milling,  with  rest__ 

,  3 

9 

Magazine  fire._ 
do 

6 

10 

Proni'. 

6 

The  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  are  the  following : 
Exercises  1  to  8  inclusive,  in  5  consecutive  shots,  maximum 
8  cartridges,  if  after  5  shots  the  required  score  is  not  made, 
another  will  be  fired  and  the  last  5  counted,  and  in  case  of 


SWITZERLAND. 


195 


failure,  still  another,  and  so  on  up  to  8  cartridges.     In  exercise 
9,  8  cartridges  will   be  placed  in  the  magazine,  and  forty 


-30  C/Jtr-  -  - 

Fig.  9. — Target  J. 


Fig.  10a.— Target  K. 


seconds  allowed  to  fire  them.     In  exercise  10,  2  cartridges 
will  be  placed  in  the  magazine  and  sixty  seconds  allowed  to 


Fig.  lOb— Target   K. 

fire  these,  fill  the  magazine,  which  holds  13  cartridges,  and 
fire  them. 


196  TARGET   PRACTICE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

In  case  of  failure  to  make  the  required  scores,  exercises  9 
and  10  may  be  repeated  once.  Any  recruit  who  has  not  ful- 
filled the  conditions  has  noted  on  his  record  "restd,"  and  he 
passes  to  the  following  exercises : 

Applied  Fire. — This  individual  applied  fire  at  field  targets 
is  to  habituate  the  i*ecruit  to  put  in  practice  the  training  he 
has  received,  and  he  is  allowed  to  assume  his  own  position 
and  select  his  own  point  of  aim. 

Program. — Exercise  11:  Single  shots  300  meters  at  target 
F  disapxjearing  (visible  during  six  seconds). 

Exercise  12:  Single  shots  at  less  than  300  meters,  at  5  fall- 
ing targets  G,  arranged  as  a  line  of  skirmishers,  five  shots  at 
each  exercise. 

After  the  firing  the  results  are  criticised  by  the  instructor. 

Insignia  of  Good  Shots. — Those  who  fulfill  all  the  condi- 
tions in  the  fire  with  single  cartridges  with  the  minimum 
number  of  shots,  and  the  magazine  fire  without  repeating  the 
exercise,  and  make  a  total  of  140  points,  by  the  addition  of 
all  the  points  and  hits  of  the  fire  with  conditions,  will  receive 
the  insignia  of  marksman  (bon  tireur).  Others  who  fill  the 
conditions  1  to  8  with  45  cartridges,  and  9  and  10  without  repe- 
tition, receive  honorable  mention,  which  is  also  noted  in  the 
soldier's  target  book,  which  contains  a  record  of  his  target 
practice  during  all  the  years  of  his  service. 

The  individual  practice  completed,  the  recruits  are  then 
practiced  in  collective  firing,  both  by  section  and  by  company. 
These  consist  of  varied  exercises  illustrative  of  campaign 
work.     The  following  exercises  will  serve  as  illustrations: 

1.  Exercises  by  section  in  extended  line,  firing  as  single 
loader,  at  400  meters,  at  a  line  of  skirmishers  formed  of  fall- 
ing targets  H  and  G  mixed. 

2.  Exercise  by  section  in  extended  line,  at  500  meters  at  an 
extended  line  of  falling  targets  G  and  F  mixed. 

3.  Exercise  by  section  in  line  in  close  order  at  GOO  meters, 
at  a  line  in  close  order  of  falling  targets  F  and  G.  The  front 
of  the  targets  should  always  exceed  half  tlie  front  of  the 
section,  and  in  the  appreciation  of  the  results,  the  time 
employed  enters  as  an  important  factor;  25  ball-cartridges 
are  allowed  for  this  kind  of  practice. 

The  recruits  are  next  practiced  in  the  fire  of  combat,  which 
is  in  fact  more  an  instruction  for  the  commander  than  for  the 
men  in  the  ranks.     For  this  purpose  several  sets  of  targets 


SWITZERLAND. 


197 


are  placed  so  that  they  may  be  seen  at  about  the  same  time. 
The  chief  marches  his  section  on  the  ground,  discovers  the 
targets,  selects  his  objective,  determines  the  range,  and  orders 
the  fire.  At  first  he  may  fire  a  few  shots  till  he  gets  the 
range,  and  then  he  directs  the  rapidity  and  distribution  of 
the  fire.  For  this  purpose  about  30  cartridges  are  usually 
allowed.  The  same  problem  is  given  by  company  on  an 
unknown  terrain,  if  possible,  for  which  50  cartridges  per  man 
are  allowed,  but  the  company  is  required  to  approach  the 
terrain  after  a  rapid  march,  or  some  exercise  requiring  great 
effort. 

If  time  and  ammunition  permit  they  may  fire  against  tar- 
gets representing  disappearing  cavalry. 

In  appreciation  of  the  results  it  is  estimated  that  a  superi- 
ority of  fire  is  obtained  when  one-third  of  the  targets  have 
fallen;  when  one-half  have  been  hit  the  objective  is  beaten. 

In  the  schools  for  noncommissioned  oflicers  the  individual 
fire  with  conditions  is  according  to  the  following  table : 


Exercise. 

Kind  of  fire. 

Distance. 

Target. 

Position. 

Conditions. 

Points. 

Hits. 

1 

Single  shots 

do 

3[eters. 
300 
400 
300 
300 
200 
400 
500 
200 
300 

A 
A 
A 
B 
B 
C 
D 
C 
C 

Kneeling                _     . 

9 
7 
5 
9 
8 
5 
6 
10 
8 

4 

3 

3 

do 

3 

4                    .     - 

do  _  . 

Prone,  with  rest 

4 

5 

do 

4 

6 

do 

Prone  - 

3 

do 

Kneeling,  with  rest ._ 
Kneehng 

3 

8 

Magazine  fire 

do  .  . 

6 

9 

The  conditions  are,  exercises  1  to  7,  in  5  consecutive  shots; 
maximum  8  cartridges,  same  as  for  recruits. 

Exercise  8,  magazine  charged  with  8  cartridges,  time  30 
seconds;  exercise  9,  2  cartridges  in  magazine  to  be  fired, 
magazine  refilled  with  13  cartridges  and  fired,  time  forty  sec- 
onds.    Exercises  8  and  9  may  be  repeated  once. 

Applied  Fire. — Exercise  10:  Single  shots,  between  200 
and  300  meters  at  target  F  disappearing,  visible  five  seconds, 
0  shots,  each  marked  as  fired. 

Exercise  11 :  Single  shots,  between  300  and  400  meters,  two 
falling  targets  F  placed  near  together,  5  shots  at  most  fifty 
seconds. 

Exercise  12:  Magazine  fire,  300  meters,  four  targets  F  fall- 
ing, placed  in  line,  magazine  filled  with   13  cartridges,   to 


198 


TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


knock  down  all  the  targets  with  the  least  possible  number  of 
shots,  time  thirty  seconds. 

Exercise  13 :  From  200  to  500  meters,  targets  falling  or  dis- 
appearing silhouettes.  Will  be  used  in  this  exercise  what  are 
left  of  the  95  cartridges  allowed  for  the  indiAddual  practice. 

The  insignia  of  marksman  and  honorable  mention  will  be 
given  on  the  same  conditions  as  for  recruits,  that  is,  a  total  of 
140  points  made  with  minimum  of  cartridges  in  exercises  1 
to  7,  and  without  repeating  exercises  8  and  9. 

Similar  problems  are  given  in  collective  firing  to  those  pre- 
viously described  in  the  recruit  course. 

The  course  of  practice  for  the  newly  appointed  officers  is  a 
little  more  difficult,  and  each  officer  is  allowed  15  cartridges 
for  preliminary  practice,  after  which  the  following  program 
is  followed : 


Kind  of  file. 


Distance. 

Target. 

Meters. 

3W 

A 

400 

A 

3fM  1 

A 

300 

B 

■2W 

B 

300 

C 

400 

C 

oOO 

D 

3(Kl 

C 

4(KI 

D 

3CK1 

F 

Single  shots  _ 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

8 t do 

9 I  Magazine  fire 

10 I do 

11 i  Single  shots  . 

Disappearing  target  visible  five  second; 
12 I  Single  shots 


Kneeling 

Prone 

Standing 

Prone,  with  rest 

Kneeling 

do 

Prone 

Kneeling,  with  rest  . 

Kneeling 

Prone 

Kneeling 

begin  aim  after  target  appears. 
200  F         Prone 


Five  targets  (falling)  in  line  of  skirmishers. 


9 

4 

" 

3 

6 

3 

9 

4 

9 

4 

6 

4 

5 

3 

6 

4 

10 

5 

10 

5 

Exercises  1  to  8  and  11,  in  5  consecutive  shots,  maximum  & 
cartridges;  exercise  9,  magazine  filled  with  13  cartridges, 
time  thirty  seconds;  exercise  10,  4  cartridges  in  magazine, 
refill  once,  time  forty  seconds ;  exercise  12,  5  shots,  time  forty 
seconds.  Numbers  9,  10,  and  12  may  be  repeated  once.  In 
case  of  failure  to  make  the  requisite  scores  the  officer  is 
reported  "restd." 

The  officer  is  given  other  practice  in  collective  fire  and  as 
instructor  of  men. 

After  the  courses  of  instruction  in  the  schools  previously 
described,  the  men  are  expected  to  keep  themselves  in  prac- 
tice by  exercises  at  the  shooting  stands  and  at  their  homes, 
but  during  the  cours  de  repetitions  of  the  ^lite  the  men  are 


SWITZERLAND.  1!)9 

given  the  followiiii^  practice,  to  see  if  they  liave  kept  up  their 
training : 

1.  Single  shots,  400  meters,  Target  C,  prone,  8  cartridges. 

'2.  Magazine  fire,  300  meters,  Target  C,  kneeling,  8  cart- 
ridges in  the  magazine,  time  forty  seconds ;  also  GO  cartridges 
for  collective  firing  under  the  company  commanders. 

The  same  allowance  is  made  for  the  landwehr,  except  that 
only  30  cartridges  are  allowed  for  collective  firing. 

MARKING    AND    SCORING. 

For  marking,  two  disks  are  used,  preferably  of  sheet  iron, 
of  40-centimeter  diameter  for  the  longer  ranges,  and  30 
centimeters  for  200  and  300  meters.  They  are  painted  the 
same  color  as  the  pasters,  that  is : 

Red  with  white  band--  4)„  .-         ,       ,  .^ 

„T.,  •.  «  f  On  one  side  red,  white  on  the  otlier. 

White 3) 

T-,,     ,  " .   •  Orange  on  one  side,  black  on  the  other. 

Black 1) 

The  disk  is  placed  with  the  center  over  the  hole  made  by 
the  bullet  and  held  there  a  few  seconds ;  a  miss  is  marked  by 
balancing  the  disk  in  the  hand.  The  law  provides  very 
severe  penalties  for  false  marking  or  false  scoring,  and  great 
care  is  taken  to  prevent  errors. 

MARKING. 

Target  A  (fig.  1) :  Points. 

Interior  circle,  40  centimeters  in  diameter- ._ 4 

Exterior  circle  of  black,  60  centimeters  in  diameter 3 

Interior  circle  white,  100  centimeters  in  diameter 2 

Exterior  circle  white,  150  centimeters  in  diameter 2 

Other  parts  of  the  target 0 

Target  B  (fig.  2): 

Hit  in  figure 3 

Interior  circle,  70  centimeters  in  diameter 2 

Exterior  circle,  100  centimeters  in  diameter 1 

Other  parts  of  the  target 0 

Target  C  (fig.  3): 

Band  containing  figures,  50  centimeters  wide 2 

Band  next  below  figures,  50  centimeters  wide --- 1 

Upper  and  lower  bands 0 

Target  D  (fig.  4) : 

Band  containing  figures,  100  centimeters  wide- 2 

Lower  band,  60  centimeters  wide 1 

Upper  band 0 

On  the  other  targets,  known  as  field  targets,  each  hit 
counts  2  points.     They  are  made  of  wood,  painted  a  neutral 


200 


TARGET    PRACTICE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


color,  gray  or  light  brown,  and  are,  excei)t  those  representing 
artillery,  provided  with  an  apparatus  to  cause  them  to  fall 
when  struck. 

Targets  B,  C,  and  D  are  of  paper,  light-  brown  in  color. 
A,  B,  C,  and  D  are  mounted  on  wooden  frames,  arranged  in 
pairs  and  counterpoised  over  pulleys  so  as  to  slide  vertically, 
very  similar  to  the  Brinton  targets  used  in  our  service.  At 
most  of  the  stands,  if  not  all,  the  markers'  pits  are  sunken  in 
front  of  the  targets,  and  a  stone  wall  or  other  substantial 
butt  is  constructed  behind  the  target  to  stop  the  projectiles. 


Fig.  11. 

Each  recruit  is  provided  with  a  target  book,  and  when  he 
fires  he  at  once  announces  to  the  officer  who  is  instructing  him 
the  place  on  the  target  upon  which  he  thinks  he  was  aiming 
when  the  gun  was  discharged ;  this  point  the  officer  marks 
with  a  dot  ( •  )  on  the  target  in  his  book.  When  the  shot  is 
marked  the  place  hit  is  marked  with  an  oblique  cross  (X)  and 
the  two  points  are  joined  by  a  line.  Many  men  are  inclined 
to  close  the  eyes  when  they  pull  the  trigger,  and  it  is  believed 
this  helps  them  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  as  well  as  to  cor- 
rect errors  in  sighting.     See  illustration  (fig.  11). 

POSITION   AND    FORTRESS   ARTILLERY. 

The  recruits  for  these  two  branches  of  the  artillery  service 
are  given  the  same  instruction  and  individual  practice  as  the 
infantry  recruits,  and  the  same  individual  practice  in  the 
cours  de  repetition.     They  are  armed  with  the  short  rifle. 


SWITZERLAND.  201 

CAVALRY. 

A  copy  of  the  program  for  the  target  practice  for  the  cav- 
alry recruits  not  being  obtainable,  the  details  of  the  practice 
can  not  be  given,  but  from  inquiries  it  is  learned  that  the 
preliminary  instruction  and  the  individual  practice  do  not 
materially  differ  from  the  course  pursued  with  the  infantry 
recruits,  but  to  this  pistol  practice  is  added,  almost  identical 
with  that  given  the  newly  appointed  officers. 

PISTOL   PRACTICE. 

In  the  preparatory  course  of  cadres  assembled  before  the 
recruit  schools,  there  is  a  short  course  of  pistol  practice  for 
the  officers,  all  of  whom  carry  pistols.  There  are  three  exer- 
cises of  6  shots  each  at  50  meters  at  Target  A,  and  four 
exercises  under  such  rules  as  the  commandant  of  the  school 
may  direct,  and  at  whatever  targets  he  may  choose,  in  series 
of  6  shots  each  at  distances  from  25  to  50  meters.  Then  in 
the  target  practice  school  for  young  officers  newly  appointed 
there  are  provided  three  exercises  of  6  shots  each  at  50  meters 
at  Target  A,  and  seven  exercises  at  such  targets  and  under 
such  conditions  as  the  commandant  of  the  school  may  direct, 
at  ranges  varying  from  25  to  50  meters.  All  the  cavalry 
have  similar  pistol  practice  dismounted. 

There  is  no  provision  for  mounted  practice. 

ALLOWANCE    OF   AMMUNITION. 

Ammunition  allowance  is  as  follows  : 

jy-n  Cartridges 

■KlttC* :  per  man. 

Preparatory  practice,  cadres  recruit  schools 30 

Each  recruit,  infantry 200 

Each  recruit,  fortress  and  position  artillery 95 

Noncommissioned  officers,  target  school ._  335 

Officers  newly  appointed 250 

Cours  de  repetition  elite 75 

Cours  de  repetition  landwehr 45 

Carbine : 

Recruit  school 150 

Cours  de  repetition 24 

Pistol : 

Officers  forming  cadres  of  recruit  schools  .-. 42 

Officers  newly  appointed 60 

Cavalry  recruits. 60 


202  TARGET    PRACTICE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  there  is  allowed  for  obligatory  prac- 
tice at  the  shooting  stands  and  paid  to  the  societies  on  their 
returns  of  practice : 

Kiancs. 

For  each  man  carrying  the  rifle  or  carbine. 1.50 

For  each  man  carrying  a  revolver 3.00 

There  are  other  subsidies  to  these  shooting  societies  encour- 
aging additional  voluntary  practice  for  men  held  to  military 
service,  also  for  all  citizens  of  the  country. 

AMMUNITION   ALLOWANCE   FOR   MACHINE-GUNS. 

Machine-guns,  Maxims:  Cartridges. 

For  recruit  school 60,000 

For  cours  de  repetition,  per  company  with  8  guns 15, 000 

ARTILLERY. 

The  schools  of  recruits  for  field  and  mountain  artillery  de- 
vote mnch  time  to  target  practice,  using  as  targets  the  same 
forms  as  the  field  targets  for  infantry,  grouped  in  sections  or 
companies,  sometimes  in  column,  then  again  in  line,  close  or 
extended  order;  those  representing  artillery  usually  in  bat- 
tery. Infantry  sections  are  formed  and  mounted  on  wheels 
with  a  long  cable  attached  which  is  deflected  by  pulleys  and 
by  means  of  horses ;  these  targets  are  made  to  move  at  varying 
rates,  while  the  artillery  fire  at  them.  Practice  is  given  at 
known  and  unknown  distances,  from  short  to  extreme  ranges 
for  the  guns  employed,  including  the  methods  of  getting  the 
range  with  both  time  and  percussion  shells. 

Similar  practice  is  given  the  recruits  for  position  and  for- 
tress artillery. 

The  following  is  the  allowance  of  ammunition  for  field  and 
mountain  batteries : 

Shell.     Shrapnel. 

For  each  school  of  recruits  with  two  batteries 300  770 

For  each  battery  in  cours  de  repetition  without  maneii- 

ver 60  440 

For  each  battery  in  cours  de  repetition  with  maneuver 360 

At  the  maneuvers  a  quantity  of  blank  ammunition  is  con- 
sumed, prescribed  in  orders,  each  year. 

Note. — The  Neue  Militiirische  Blatter,  Berlin,  January  1,  1901,  says: 
"There  are  no  firing  schools,  as  the  term  is  understood  in  Germany,  in  the 
militia  system  of  Switzerland.  Lieutenants  of  infantry  are  required  to 
complete  a  four  weeks'  course  at  a  so-called  firing  school,  during  which 
they  are  instructed  both  theoretically  and  practically  in  individual  and 


SWITZERLAND.  203 

jilatoon  fire.  Occasionally  more  extensive  firing  exercises  are  held  in  ele- 
vated localities,  as,  for  instance,  in  1898  on  Monnt  de  Baiihnes  on  the  pla- 
tean  of  Crebillon.  The  military  department  has  appointed  a  commission 
for  the  study  of  the  question  of  firing  instruction,  but  the  suggestions 
refer  only  to  exercises  in  the  recruit  schools  and  cours  de  i*epetition. 
Nothing  is  done  in  the  way  of  firing  instruction  for  field  artillery,  the 
target  practice  held  being  thought  to  be  sufficient. " 

There  is  an  experiment  ground  at  Thun  where  new  weapons  for  infantry 
and  artillery  are  tested. 


I 


EEMOUNT  SYSTEMS  OF  FOEEIGN  AKMIES. 


(205) 


EEMOUNT  SYSTEMS  OF  FOREIGN  ARMIES. 


Military  remounts  have  been  shown  by  recent  events  to  be 
a  factor  on  which,  more  than  any  other,  success  in  war  may 
depend.  Three  hundred  thousand  horses,  costing  $62,000,000, 
were  purchased  by  Great  Britain  for  the  South- African  war, 
where  95  per  cent  of  the  British  fiekl  army  is  mounted.  Ger- 
many has  130,000  horses  in  the  army,  France  has  143,000,  and 
Russia  175,000.  As  high  as  500,000  more  would  be  required 
to  bring  one  of  these  countries  up  to  a  war  footing. 

The  systems  herein  described  have  been  reported  by  our 
military  attaches,  or  compiled  from  other  sources,  and  show 
how  and  where  the  principal  armies  of  the  world  obtain  their 
remounts,  and  the  methods  practiced  for  improving  them. 


I.-AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

[Reported  by  Lieut.  Col.  J.  B.  Kerr,  Ninth  Cavalry,  I'liiteil  States  Military  Attache  at  Berliu.] 


There  are  in  Austria-Hungary  3,857,000  horses;  of  these, 
1,548,300  are  in  Austria,  and  2,308,700  in  Hungary.  The 
number  of  stallions  in  Austria  is  133,145,  in  Hungary,  198,845. 
Both  geldings  and  mares  are  used  in  the  army.  The  geldings 
and  mares  over  4  years  number  in  Austria  1,040,412,  in  Hun- 
gary, 1,553,155;  total,  2,593,567;  under  4  years  in  Austria, 
374,743,  in  Hungary,  556,700;  total,  931,443. 

In  time  of  peace  all  horses  and  pack  animals  for  the  army 
are  purchased  by  remount  commissions,  acting  under  the 
orders  of  the  imperial  war  ministry.  In  case  of  mobilization 
the  additional  horses  required  are  furnished  by  the  horse 
owners,  who  give  their  serviceable  animals  to  the  govern- 
ment, receiving  proper  indemnification  for  the  same.  Only 
in  case  of  a  partial  mobilization  of  small  extent  may  the 
horses  be  purchased  as  in  peace.  Horses  purchased  in  peace 
are  distributed  directly  either  to  the  troops  requiring  them 
or  to  the  remount  depots.     The  cavalry  and  artillery  may  be 

(207) 


208  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

permitted  by  the  war  ministry  to  purchase  their  remounts 
directly.  Organizations  which  have  not  this  permission  may 
occasionally  buy  particularly  good  horses,  rendering  a  de- 
tailed report  of  the  transaction  to  the  war  ministry. 

There  are  seven  permanent  remount  purchasing  commis- 
sions, stationed  as  follows:  At  Budapest,  Szegedin,  Nagy- 
Kaniza,  Bilak,  Lemberg,  Rzeszow,  and  Miskolcz.  Each  of 
these  commissions  is  composed  of  a  colonel  or  lieutenant 
colonel  of  cavalry  as  president,  a  retired  officer  as  recorder 
and  accountant,  and  of  a  veterinary  surgeon.  Certain  of 
these  commissions  have  at  their  disposal  a  retired  field  officer 
of  cavalry  to  replace  the  president  when  deemed  necessary. 
The  purchasing  commissions  of  the  troops  that  buy  their  own 
horses  are  each  composed  of  a  field  officer  or  captain  of  cav- 
alry as  president,  a  retired  officer  as  recorder  and  accountant, 
and  of  a  veterinary  surgeon.  Certain  of  these  commissions 
have  also  at  their  disposal  a  retired  field  officer  of  cavalry  to 
replace  the  president  when  deemed  necessary.  The  com- 
mander of  the  troops  is  nevertheless  responsible  for  the  mili- 
tary value  of  the  horses  bought  by  these  commissions,  and  it 
is  also  his  duty  to  see  that  the  necessary  number  of  horses  is 
obtained.  All  the  horses  purchased  are  procured  within  the 
limits  of  the  empire.  Most  of  them  are  bought  during  the 
autumn.  In  the  spring  and  summer  only  as  many  are  pur- 
chased as  are  necessary  to  supply  the  losses  that  have  occurred, 
and  the  3^-year-olds  which  go  to  the  remount  de^jots.  The 
purchasing  commissions  publish  in  the  newspapers  the  dates 
of  their  meetings.  Horses  are  procured  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  raisers;  it  is  only  exceptionally  and  only  in  the 
absence  of  the  latter  that  the  commissions  have  recourse  to 
the  merchants.  From  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  horses  are 
bought  without  an  intermediary.  In  addition  to  the  horses 
purchased  at  the  seats  of  the  commissions,  the  presidents  of 
the  permanent  commissions  visit  the  markets,  the  raising 
centers,  and  the  private  breeding  stables  in  order  to  procure 
especially  suitable  animals.  The  horses  acquired  for  issue 
direct  to  the  troops  must  be  at  least  5  years  old,  7  at  the 
most.  The  commissions  are  authorized  to  buy  a  limited 
number  of  4-year-olds  if  particularly  strong  and  well  devel- 
oped. Only  healthy  and  serviceable  animals  are  purchased. 
The  minimum  height  is  15  hands  1  inch  for  horses  for  the 
cavalry,    for   noncommissioned   officers'   saddle  horses,    and 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  209 

saddle  horses  for  the  train ;  15  hands  3  inches  for  draft  horses ; 
14  hands  2  inches  for  pack  horses.  Saddle  horses,  however, 
below  15  hands  2  inches  are  not  bought  unless  they  are  par- 
ticularlj'-  strong  animals.  The  minimum  height  for  draft 
horses  is  reduced  only  in  very  exceptional  cases.  The  saddle 
horses  of  the  horse  artillery  are  preferred  between  15  hands 
1  inch  and  15  hands  2  inches.  The  maximum  height  is  16 
hands  1  inch  for  the  saddle,  and  16  hands  3  inches  for  draft. 
For  mules  for  mountain  service  the  height  depends  upon  the 
breeding  conditions  of  the  country  where  they  are  bought. 

There  is  no  export  duty  on  horses  or  mules.  The  import 
duty  on  horses  over  2  years  of  age  is  $4.06  each,  colts  of  2 
years  and  under  being  free,  mules  $0,812. 

The  use  of  the  mule  is  confined  to  pack  purposes,  princi- 
pally for  mountain  artillery. 

The  prices  of  the  horses  are  fixed  each  year  in  the  budget ; 
they  average  $101.32  for  saddle  horses,  and  $141.47  for  draft 
horses.  These  are  the  average  prices.  The  commissions  may 
pay  more  in  special  cases.  The  commissions  have  also  at  their 
disposal  a  fund  for  increasing  the  purchase  price  of  cavalry 
horses  and  horses  for  noncommissioned  officers  of  artiller3^ 
The  fund  amounts  to  an  annual  allowance  of  $5,790,  or  38.6 
cents  for  each  animal  bought.  The  number  of  horses  annually 
acquired  is  about  12,000.  Descriptions  of  the  horses,  at  the 
time  of  purchase,  are  entered  in  a  book  by  the  recorder.  The 
horses  are  then  branded  on  the  left  side  of  the  neck.  When 
the  horses  reach  their  regiments  they  are  branded  with  the 
regimental  number  on  the  left  hip.  Each  organization  of 
troops  receives  annually  12  per  cent  of  its  authorized  strength 
in  saddle  horses  and  10  per  cent  in  draft  horses.  The  aver- 
age service  duration  of  the  former  is  therefore  8-J  years  and 
of  the  latter  10  years.  The  purchase  of  horses  of  5  and  even 
4  years  is  very  difficult,  as  the  raisers  generally  sell  the  ani- 
mals under  these  ages,  or  else  have  spoiled  them  by  work. 
The  military  administration,  therefore,  has  been  obliged 
either  to  raise  the  price,  or  to  buy  younger  horses,  from  3^ 
years  and  over.  For  these  young  horses  the  creation  of  horse 
depots  became  necessary,  in  which  the  animals  could  be  kept 
until  4^  years  old,  the  age  at  which  they  can  be  delivered  to 
the  troops. 

The  remount  depots  number  five,  and  are  located  at  Bilak, 
Nagy-Daad-Sari,  Labod,  Klecza  Dolna,  and  Ihaszi  Marczalto. 


210  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

Each  one  of  these  depots  includes  a  large  domain  where  young 
horses  are  raised  on  the  range  for  a  period  averaging  one 
3^ear.  These  horses  are  not  ridden  at  the  depots.  There  is 
joined  to  each  depot  a  farm,  which  permits  the  supplying  of 
all  agricultural  products  for  the  depot  by  means  of  its  own 
resources.  The  depot  at  Nagy-Daad-Sari  has  a  capacity  for 
1,000  remounts,  at  Labod  600,  and  at  each  of  the  three  others 
400.  For  superintending  the  remount  service  a  general  is 
appointed,  who  has  the  title  of  general  inspector  of  remounts 
and  who  is  directly  under  the  orders  of  the  imperial  war  min- 
istry. He  exercises  direction  over  the  purchasing  commis- 
sions and  the  remount  depots  in  all  that  concerns  the  purchase, 
raising,  and  distribution  of  horses.  His  attention  is  given 
principally  to  tlie  kinds  of  animals  bought,  and  the  formation 
of  groups  of  horses  for  assignment  to  the  different  troops.  He 
assists  at  the  purchases  on  the  days  the  commissions  meet  at 
important  fairs.  Under  orders  of  the  minister  of  war  he 
inspects  the  horses  in  the  different  organizations,  in  order  to 
keep  himself  informed  of  the  value  of  the  remount  horses  as 
to  their  adaptability  for  the  service  and  to  watch  their  devel- 
opment. He  submits  to  the  war  ministry  all  propositions 
which  appear  to  him  to  be  of  a  nature  to  improve  the  remount. 
He  acquaints  himself  with  the  horse  production  of  the  mon- 
archy, in  order  to  be  able  to  direct  purchasing  commissions 
to  the  places  where  they  will  find  the  most  and  the  best 
horses.     A  field  officer  is  detailed  to  assist  him. 

After  the  month  of  May  each  year,  3-year-olds  are  bought, 
but  the  best  only ;  that  is,  those  which  give  promise  of  mak- 
ing good  mounts  for  ofiicers.  They  are  sent  to  the  remount 
depots. 

Each  regiment  receives  annually  about  65  horses,  12  to  15 
of  which  come  from  the  remount  depots. 

The  remount  depot  of  Nagy-Daad-Sari  is  in  Hungary.  Its 
grounds  extend  over  a  domain  of  8,000  acres.  It  is  in  two 
tracts,  one  containing  4, 700  acres  and  the  other  3,300,  located 
about  4  miles  from  each  other.  In  addition  to  the  pastures 
reserved  for  the  horses,  much  of  the  land  is  placed  under 
cultivation.  The  management  is  entirely  military.  It  is 
administered  by  1  field  oflBcer,  as  commander;  1  captain,  4 
lieutenants,  one  of  whom  is  the  accounting  officer,  12  ser- 
geants, 10  corporals,  and  60  privates,  furnished  by  the  regi- 
ments to  which  the  horses  are  sent.     The  privates  are  chosen 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  'HI 

from  the  sickly  men  of  the  regiments  and  those  against  whom 
continual  complaints  are  entered.  The  agricultural  labor  is 
done  by  civilians.  In  busy  seasons  the  number  of  laborers 
reaches  600.  All  kinds  of  agricultural  products  are  raised, 
but  principally  oats  and  corn.  Oxen  are  used  for  work. 
Horses  which  have  been  injured  or  have  in  other  ways  become 
unsuitable  for  army  use  are  also  employed  in  work  and  as  sad- 
dle horses  for  the  attendants.  The  dwellings  and  the  stables, 
as  at  all  the  other  depots,  are  on  high  gronnd.  The  pastures, 
from  500  to  750  acres  in  extent,  are  inclosed  by  wire  fences. 
The  horses  are  distributed  in  herds  of  about  100  each,  and  are 
always  guarded  by  two  or  three  men,  the  noncommissioned 
officer  of  the  stables  making  frequent  inspections.  The  horses 
are  kept  outside  as  much  as  possible,  but  never  over  night. 
They  are  taken  out  early  in  the  morning.  In  summer  during 
the  heat  of  the  day  they  are  brought  in,  and  then  taken  out 
again  in  the  afternoon  until  night.  The  ration  consists  of  7.2 
pounds  of  hay  and  4.4  pounds  of  straw,  no  grain. 

The  purchasing  commissions  take  only  those  3-year-olds 
which  seem  susceptible  of  making  good  mounts  for  officers. 
They  pay  for  these  young  animals  from  $119.66  to  $138.97. 
These  horses  are  very  uniform,  there  being  but  little  variance 
among  them.  Fewer  than  one-fourth  of  the  horses  purchased 
go  to  the  depots,  the  remainder  go  directly  to  their  regiments. 
There  are  found  in  the  depots  only  picked  horses.  When 
they  first  arrive  at  the  depot  they  are  quarantined  for  six 
weeks  in  a  special  stable,  and  are  pastured  in  a  field  com- 
pletely isolated.  Afterwards  they  are  put  in  common  stables. 
This  undoubtedly  prevents  the  spread  of  contagious  diseases. 
Horses  of  similar  size  and  form  are  placed  in  the  same  stable, 
but  they  are  not  selected  or  set  apart  for  the  diff^'erent  branches 
of  the  service  until  it  is  time  to  forward  them  to  their  regi- 
ments. After  a  stay  of  six  months  at  the  depots  the  horses 
are  examined  and  marked  by  the  commandant  in  classes  from 
0  to  7.  Classes  7  and  6  contain  the  perfect  and  very  good, 
which  enter  definitely  into  the  category  of  officers'  horses. 
Classes  5  and  4  are  marked  as  almost  very  good  and  good, 
and  are  noted  to  be  inspected  again.  Another  examination 
of  them  is  made  before  they  can  enter  the  first-named  category. 
Classes  3  and  2  will  make  noncommissioned  officers'  horses, 
unless  they  greatly  improve  before  leaving  the  depot ;  1  and 
0  go  to  the  troops.     The  young  horses  frequently  change  for 


212  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

the  better  or  worse  during  their  stay  at  the  depot.  The  infe- 
rior horses  go  to  the  artillery.  When  they  have  reached  their 
fourth  year,  the  horses  are  classed  by  the  inspector  general 
according  to  the  number  to  be  furnished  to  each  regiment. 
The  different  lots  are  drawn  for  before  starting  for  their 
regiments. 

All  the  remount  depots  are  similar  in  every  respect,  their 
managements  and  resources  being  uniform. 

The  horses  are  not  shod  and  are  not  trained  under  the  sad- 
dle at  the  depots. 

The  description  given  of  the  remount  depot  at  Nagy-Daad- 
Sari  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  the  horses 
are  cared  for  at  the  other  remount  depots  mentioned. 

In  the  army  the  trot  is  very  little  used.  It  is  never  prac- 
ticed beyond  the  regulation  speed.  The  gallop  is  more  gen- 
erally in  use,  the  degree  of  blood  of  the  horse  lends  itself  to 
it.  The  reins  are  loose  during  the  walk,  which  is  an  easy 
one.  It  is  a  principle  not  to  inconvenience  the  horse,  but  to 
leave  him  at  liberty  as  much  as  possible.  Long  distances  are 
moved  over  at  an  easy  and  smooth  gallop.  The  riders  guide 
their  horses  well.  The  stirrups  are  short  and  the  legs  well 
forward. 

There  being  comparatively  few  hard  roads  in  the  empire, 
especially  in  Hungary,  the  horses  of  the  army  are  not  habitu- 
ally shod.  The  metaled  roads  generally  have  paths  of  earth 
on  the  sides  for  riding,  so  that  the  horses  are  seldom  ridden 
on  hard  ground.  They  have,  as  a  rule,  very  fine  feet.  When 
shoes  are  used  they  are  made  of  iron,  with  a  groove,  and  have 
holes  for  6  nails.  The  foot  is  cut  by  the  farrier  the  least  pos- 
sible. The  condition  of  the  ground  has  giiided  somewhat  the 
choice  of  the  locations  of  the  cavalry  garrisons.  Some  of  the 
regiments  are  near  immense  moors  where  the  horses  gallop 
on  elastic  ground.  Horses  are  groomed  three  times  a  day. 
They  are  not  vaccinated. 

The  officers  are  well  mounted,  often  purchasing  superior 
horses  in  the  markets  for  their  own  use.  Mounted  officers  in 
part  receive  government  service  horses,  and  in  part  supply 
themselves  with  horses,  for  all  of  which  they  receive  forage. 

In  time  of  peace  the  following  officers  have  mounts  free  of 
cost:  Adjutants  of  infantry  and  fortress  artillery,  lieuten- 
ants of  cavalry,  captains  of  cavalry  of  the  second  class,  and 
the  subaltern  officers  of  the  field  artillery  and  of  the  train. 


AUSTlilA-HUNUARY.  213 

In  war,  in  addition  to  these,  all  supi)ly  oflQcers,  officers  of  the 
pioneer  troops,  field  telegraph  and  field  sanitary  officers,  etc., 
are  furnished  mounts  by  the  government.  The  infantry 
adjutants  are  remounted  by  the  cavalry  regiments,  those  of- 
the  fortress  artillery  by  the  regiments  of  corps  artillery.  The 
horses  put  in  their  possession  must  be  under  10  years  of  age. 
Each  regiment  of  cavalry  always  has  on  hand  six  horses  for 
this  purpose.  At  the  end  of  eight  years  the  horses  become 
the  property  of  the  officers  having  them  in  their  possession. 

The  cavalry  officers,  remounted  free  of  cost,  take  char- 
gers from  among  the  troop  horses.  These  horses  should  as  a 
rule,  barring  accidental  injuries  or  disability,  remain  five 
years  in  the  hands  of  the  holder.  After  five  years  the  officer 
can  ask  to  become  the  owner  by  the  payment  of  three  annui- 
ties, amounting  in  all  to  one-quarter  of  the  value  of  the  horse. 
After  eight  years  the  officer  has  a  property  right  to  the  horse. 
The  artillery  officers  are  remounted  in  the  same  manner  from 
among  the  saddle  horses  of  the  noncommissioned  officers  of 
their  corps.  The  officers  of  the  train  choose  from  among  the 
horses  of  their  train  divisions.  All  the  other  officers,  the  field 
officers  and  captains  of  foot  troops  and  of  the  technical  troops, 
of  the  staffs,  of  the  foot  artillery,  captains  of  the  first  class  and 
the  field  officers  of  cavalry,  are  remounted  at  their  own  ex- 
pense. The  doctors  and  officials  of  the  supply  departments 
are  not  mounted  in  time  of  peace,  troop  horses  being  furnished 
them  temporarily  during  the  maneuvers.  Upon  mobilization 
they  mount  themselves  at  their  own  expense  from  among  the 
requisitioned  saddle  horses. 

The  officers  remounted  at  their  own  expense  can  be  author- 
ized by  the  war  ministry  to  be  furnished  horses  by  the  per- 
manent purchasing  commissions,  in  which  case  they  pay  for 
the  same  in  monthly  installments,  the  number  of  which  may 
vary  from  12  to  48.  The  field  officers,  excepting  those  of  the 
cavalry,  may  also,  though  exceptionally,  obtain  similar 
authorization  to  take  mounts  from  among  the  horses  of  the 
cavalry,  artillery,  or  train.  A  uniform  price  of  8131.63  is 
paid  for  these  horses.  The  horses  taken  directly  from  the 
purchasing  commissions  can  be  acquired  at  the  price  of 
$162.12,  which  is  the  jjrice  limit  authorized  for  officers  of  the 
cavalry,  artillery,  and  the  staff.  In  this  case,  the  permanent 
purchasing  commission  serves  as  intermediary  between  the 
seller  and  the  officer  in  whose  interest  it  acts.     All  officers  of 


214  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

cavalry  and  of  horse  artillery,  mounted  free  of  cost,  are 
obliged  to  own  also  one  or  two  horses  purchased  at  their  own 
expense.  Thus,  in  the  cavalry  each  field  ofiBcer  and  captain 
must  own  three  horses ;  each  lieutenant,  besides  the  charger 
furnished  free  of  cost,  one  horse.  The  higher  officers  draw 
forage  for  and  have  to  keep  a  greater  number  of  horses.  A 
mounted  officer  receives  an  allowance  (extra  pay)  for  each 
horse  held  at  his  own  expense.  For  cavalry  officers  the  extra 
pay  is  $12.16  for  each  horse  per  year.  For  officers  of  the 
other  arms  $17.02.  Lieutenants  of  cavalry  and  captains  of 
the  second  class  of  cavalry  receive  also  a  special  indemnity 
of  $48.7-4  per  annum.  Mounted  officers  receive  extra  pay  for 
stable  hire,  and  the  higher  officers  entitled  to  carriages  receive 
extra  pay  for  carriage-house  hire,  when  stables  and  carriage 
houses  are  not  furnished  by  the  government.  The  allowance 
of  horses  is,  for  a  general,  from  3  to  7,  according  to  his  duties; 
for  a  colonel  of  cavalry,  4;  other  cavalry  field  officers,  3; 
colonel  of  infantry,  3;  colonel  of  artillery,  3;  captains  of  the 
staff,  2;  and  field  officers  of  the  diverse  arms,  2.  Commuta- 
tion of  forage  is  due  all  officers  entitled  to  mounts,  whether 
the  animals  were  acquired  at  their  own  expense  or  free  of 
cost.  The  allowance  for  mounts  is  drawn  annually,  the  other 
allowances  are  drawn  either  every  five  days  or  monthly,  and 
are  paid  in  advance. 

The  daily  forage  ration  for  horses  of  the  army  in  time  of 
peace  is  as  follows :  For  saddle  horses  of  all  kinds  9.24  pounds 
oats,  7.48  pounds  hay,  and  for  bedding  3.44  pounds  straw. 
For  draft  horses  of  artillery  10.16  pounds  oats,  9.9  pounds 
hay,  and  for  bedding  3.44  pounds  straw.  For  draft  horses  of 
the  train  9.24  pounds  oats,  7.9  pounds  hay,  1.87  pounds  straw, 
and  for  bedding  3.44  pounds  straw.  For  draft  horses  of  the 
schools  9.24  pounds  oats,  9.9  pounds  hay,  and  for  bedding 
3.44  pounds  straw.  In  time  of  war  the  forage  ration  is  the 
same  for  all  categories  of  horses;  it  consists,  however,  of 
three  types:  First,  the  strong  ration,  12  po^^nds  oats  and  6.6 
pounds  hay ;  second,  the  ration  furnished  from  the  provision 
columns,  11  pounds  oats  and  6.6  pounds  hay ;  third,  the  reserve 
ration,  5.5  pounds  oats  and  6.6  pounds  hay. 

There  are  sixty-two  large  storehouses  throughout  the  empire 
for  forage  and  rations.  These  storehouses  themselves  have 
permanent  or  temporary  annexes  in  the  principal  garrison 
centers.  In  small  garrisons  the  forage  is  furnished  directly 
by  contractors.     Compressed  forage  is  not  used. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  215 

111  time  of  peace  tlie  total  number  of  horses  in  the  army  is 
69,950,  Of  this  number  46,700  belong  to  the  cavalry,  14,900 
to  the  artillery,  1,620  to  the  infantry,  and  6,730  to  the  train, 
pioneers,  and  other  services.  In  addition  there  are  about 
5,000  officers'  horses.  In  case  of  mobilization  the  cavalry 
requires  a  great  many  more  trained  saddle  horses.  In  order 
to  have  them  available  and  not  to  be  compelled  to  maintain 
them  in  peace,  every  j^ear  a  certain  number  of  horses  of  the 
cavalry  regiments  are  given,  after  six  months'  training,  to 
civilians  for  use.  These  persons  must  be  in  assured  condi- 
tions of  life  and  must  take  the  obligation  to  maintain  the 
horses  in  a  serviceable  state,  and  to  return  them  within 
twenty-four  hours  to  the  reginaent  in  question,  in  case  of 
mobilization.  In  addition  these  horses  are  assembled  annually 
during  the  autumn  maneuvers,  for  periods  not  to  exceed 
twenty-eight  days  each,  and  every  spring  they  are  submitted 
to  a  mustering  commission  which  reports  their  degree  of  serv- 
iceability. In  case  of  good  maintenance,  the  holder  receives 
an  annual  prize  of  $4,  $2  of  which  is  paid  in  the  autumn  and 
$2  in  the  spring.  If  "the  horse,  by  the  fault  of  the  user,  is  not 
serviceable  for  war,  the  holder  must  render  indemnification. 
At  the  end  of  six  years  in  Austria  and  five  years  in  Hungary, 
the  horses  become  the  property  of  the  users  without  payment. 
They  are,  nevertheless,  subject  to  requisition  upon  mobiliza- 
tion. In  this  case,  however,  their  owners  receive  pay  for 
them  from  the  public  treasury.  The  number  of  these  horses 
in  the  service  of  private  persons  is  26,260.  They  are  bought 
over  and  above  the  annual  contingent  and  are  commonly 
known  as  "horses  on  leave."  The  practical  application  of 
this  system  has  caused  no  criticism. 

In  case  of  mobilization  the  horses  can  not  be  procured  in 
the  same  manner  as  during  peace,  as  this  would  require  sev- 
eral months,  and  the  mobilization  would  be  delayed.  For 
this  reason  the  horses  required  in  case  of  mobilization  are 
supplied  by  conscription  (requisition).  This  is  regulated  by 
the  horse-conscription  laws  of  1873.  By  these  laws  every 
horse  owner  is  obliged  to  give  the  government  the  horses 
owned  by  him  which  are  serviceable  for  war,  for  which  he 
receives  ])roper  indemnification.  Horse  owners  disobeying 
the  call  to  present  their  horses  will  be  forced  to  do  so,  and 
will  be  fined  if  they  can  not  justify  their  delay.  The  entire 
horse  supply  is  divided  between  the  two  states  of  the  monarchy 


216  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

in  the  ratio  of  the  total  number  of  horses  they  contain.  The 
number  of  horses  to  be  furnished  by  the  provinces  and  dis- 
tricts is  iixed  according  to  the  number  of  horses  they  have. 
In  order  to  determine  this  number,  a  horse  classification  is 
made  every  three  years  by  mixed  commissions,  composed  of 
army  officers  and  civilian  representatives,  which  divide  the 
horses  into  two  classes,  the  "serviceable"  and  the  "unservice- 
able." In  the  interval  between  these  periods,  the  horse  own- 
ers have  to  report  their  horses,  and  the  heads  of  the  local 
communities  submit,  with  these  reports,  evidence  as  to  the 
serviceability  of  the  horses  for  war.  For  each  levying  dis- 
trict there  is  appointed  during  peace  a  commission,  consisting 
of  a  field  officer  or  captain,  one  reckoning  officer,  one  vet- 
erinary or  farrier,  representatives  of  the  civil  authorities,  and 
three  sworn  civil  appraisers.  As  soon  as  the  order  to  present 
the  horses  has  been  issued  the  communities  are  requested  by 
the  civil  authorities  to  bring  to  the  designated  place,  at  a 
fixed  time,  all  those  horses  which  in  the  last  classification 
were  found  serviceable,  as  well  as  those  which  by  the  1st  of 
the  last  January  exceeded  their  fourth  year  of  age.  These 
horses  are  presented  and  are  then  classified  by  the  commis- 
sion as  serviceable  or  unserviceable ;  then  as  saddle,  draft,  or 
pack  animals.  The  following  are  specifications  for  servicea- 
bility: minimum  height  for  saddle  horses,  15  hands  1  inch; 
for  draft  horses,  15  hands  2  inches  (if  strongly  built,  15  hands 
1  inch) ;  for  pack  animals,  from  12  hands  2  inches  to  13  hands 
3  inches.  In  the  Tyrol  and  Dalmatia  smaller  minimum 
measures  are  required,  viz,  14  hands  2  inches  and  13  hands  2 
inches,  respectively,  for  saddle  horses;  12  hands  2  inches  for 
pack  horses,  and  mules  10  hands  2  inches.  The  minimum 
age  is  4  years;  no  maximum  age  is  fixed.  Unessential  faults 
not  rendering  the  animals  unserviceable,  but  which  in  time 
of  peace  might  exclude  their  acceptance,  are  disregarded. 
The  remount  prices  fixed  by  the  war  ministry  are  published, 
and  the  owners  of  serviceable  horses  are  requested  to  offer 
them  at  the  fixed  prices.  Those  voluntarily  offered  are  pur- 
chased by  selection  made  by  the  commissions,  at  the  prices 
fixed.  If  the  number  of  horses  to  be  furnished  by  the  com- 
munity is  not  thus  obtained,  then  all  the  other  serviceable 
horses  are  ap'praised.  The  appraisement  is  done  by  the  sworn 
appraisers,  who  are  not  bound  by  the  remount  prices  (the 
prices  fixed),  but  serviceable  horses  may  be  taken  at  a  price 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  217 

below  the  remount  price.  No  objection  against  the  appraised 
price  is  allowed.  Those  horses  are  first  taken  which  receive 
the  lowest  appraisement.  The  appraised  prices  are  paid  at 
once.  As  a  rule  persons  owning  more  than  one  horse  are  not 
required  to  furnish  more  than  about  one-half  their  number 
of  horses.  If  the  number  of  horses  is  not  sufficient  for  this 
method  to  be  emj)loyed,  some  other  method  is  adopted,  all 
horse  owners  being  treated  impartially  as  far  as  possible. 
As  soon  as  a  mobilization  is  ordered  trained  service  horses 
are  no  longer  furnished  to  officers;  they  can  then  get  only  the 
horses  furnished  by  the  country,  that  is,  untrained  horses. 
Officers,  therefore,  during  a  campaign  can  depend  for  trained 
horses  only  upon  those  they  have  already  acquired  in  time  of 
peace.  The  number  of  horses  required  upon  mobilization  is 
about  as  follows :  cavalry,  91,350;  artillery,  87,440;  infantry, 
25,150;  train,  pioneers,  and  other  arms,  47,000;  total,  250,940. 
The  numberof  additional  horses  required  is,  therefore,  175,000. 

The  administration  of  the  studs  of  Austria-Hungary  may 
be  said  to  be  a  military  one.  The  officers  and  men  of  the 
stables  have  a  military  organization.  While  the  personnel 
is  amenable  to  the  minister  of  war  and  to  the  commanders 
of  the  organizations,  it  is  paid,  as  provided  by  the  budget, 
by  the  ministers  of  agriculture  of  Austria  and  of  Hungary. 
The  ministers  of  agriculture  have  the  direction  of  the  studs  in 
the  corresponding  parts  of  the  monarchy. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  establishments :  First,  breeding- 
establishments  where  the  state  produces  and  raises  horses; 
second,  stallion  depots.  The  officers  at  these  establishments 
belong  to  a  special  corps,  which  has  two  divisions,  one  for 
Austria  and  the  other  for  Hungary.  This  corps  of  officers  is 
recruited  from  the  officers  of  the  cavalry  and  of  the  train  who 
have  served  three  years  in  a  body  of  troops,  and  who  have 
also  shown  special  aptitude.  To  verify  this  aptitude,  the 
officers  must  pass  an  examination  before  a  board  under  the 
presidency  of  the  inspector  of  the  Austrian  or  Hungarian 
studs,  at  the  veterinary  institute  of  Vienna  or  of  Budapest. 
The  examination  is  both  theoretical  and  practical,  and  bears 
upon  the  knowledge  of  the  horse,  its  anatomy,  and  the  raising, 
riding,  and  driving  of  horses.  The  examination  is  followed, 
by  a  period  of  six  months  of  probation  before  the  officer  is 
definitely  admitted.  Exceptionally,  the  cadets  acting  as 
officers  of  cavalry  and  of  the  train  can  be  admitted,  after  one 


218  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

year  of  service,  subject  to  examination  before  the  board,  and 
a  probationary  period.  Once  officers  of  this  special  corps 
they  can  not,  as  a  rule,  be  transferred  back  to  the  arm  from 
which  they  came.  In  particular  cases  their  transfer  may  be 
approved  by  the  minister  of  war,  but  only  after  the  officer 
has,  by  a  probationary  period  with  troops,  given  proof  that 
he  is  still  capable  of  serving  there.  This  corjDS  numbers  128 
officers,  of  whom  45  belong  to  Austria,  and  83  to  Hungary. 
These  officers  have  charge  of  the  following  establishments : 
In  Austria,  the  breeding  stables  of  Fiber  and  of  Radautz, 
and  the  stallion  de]3ots  of  Stadl,  Graz,  Goding,  Pisek,  and 
Drohowyze.  In  Hungary,  the  breeding  stables  of  Mezohegyes, 
Kis-Ber,  Babolna,  and  Fogaras,  and  the  stallion  depots  of 
Stuhlweissenburg,  Nagy-Koros,  Debreczin,  Sepsi-Szent- 
Gyorgy,  and  Agram.  Each  of  these  establishments  has  at 
its  disposal  the  necessary  number  of  surgeons,  veterinary 
surgeons,  and  accountants  belonging  to  the  various  organiza- 
tions. There  are  on  duty  at  these  establishments  943  noncom- 
missioned officers,  18  accountants,  3,578  privates  of  cavalry, 
and  135  orderlies;  total,  4,674.  Under  the  orders  of  the  com- 
mandants of  the  establishments  is  also  the  management  of 
the  civil  personnel  necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  the  land 
connected  with  the  breeding  establishments. 

The  stallion  depots  furnish  stallions  for  a  certain  number 
of  permanent  posts  commanded  by  officers.  Each  post  fur- 
nishes its  stations  with  stallions  during  the  covering  season. 
The  number  of  posts  in  Austria  is  16,  and  in  Hungary  20,  in 
all  containing  3,067  stallions,  and  supplying  1,118  covering 
stations.  The  state  rents  to  private  persons  191  stallions.  It 
does  not  loan  stallions  free  of  rent. 

The  Hungarian  breeding  establishments  contain  3,686  ani- 
mals, distributed  as  follows:  At  Mezohegyes  2,049,  at  Kis-Ber 
698,  at  Babolna  584,  and  at  Fogaras  355.  The  breeding  sta- 
bles influence  to  some  extent  the  national  raising  by  their 
selections  of  stallions  and  mares  for  reproduction,  the  prod- 
iicts  being  disseminated  by  sales,  and  furnishing  a  considera- 
ble number  of  brood  mares  of  superior  type.  There  results 
from  this,  in  the  horse  production  of  the  monarchy,  a  uni- 
formity by  which  the  remount  service  has  profited  in  a  great 
measure,  to  furnish  the  army  with  horses  of  a  standard  type 
and  of  similar  gaits. 

The  royal  Hungarian  breeding  establishment  of  Mezohegyes 
is  the  most  important,  on  account  of  the  number,  variety,  and 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  219 

quality  of  its  horses.  It  extends  over  an  area  of  50,000  acres, 
in  one  tract  inclosed  by  a  ditch  and  forest.  The  domain  has 
6,000  civil  and  military  employees,  and  includes  a  sugar  fac- 
tory and  an  alcohol  distillery.  Cereals  cover  about  one- 
quarter  of  the  ground.  The  stables  were  founded  in  1785. 
In  1884  a  number  of  stallions  and  mares  were  acquired  in 
Turkey  and  Moldavia. 

The  chief  of  the  agricultural  ministerial  section  of  breeding 
stables  classifies  the  horses,  excludes  animals  unfit  for  repro- 
duction, distributes  stallions,  admits  brood  mares  and  directs 
the  annual  sales.  The  horses  are  never  tied  up  in  the  stables, 
but  range  in  the  paddock.  The  service  animals  of  the  breed- 
ing stables,  98  saddle  horses  and  56  draft  horses,  are  chosen 
from  those  excluded.  Mares  may  be  boarded  at  the  stables 
during  the  covering  period.  They  are  stabled  free  of  cost, 
but  the  forage  used  by  them  is  paid  for  by  the  owners  at  its 
market  value,  which  is  on  an  average  about  $6.08  a  month 
per  mare.  The  owner  pays  $1  to  the  men  who  take  care  of  a 
mare.  The  price  of  the  serving  is  fixed  each  year  by  the 
minister  of  agriculture.  Thoroughbred  mares  foaled  in 
Hungary  and  belonging  to  Hungarians  are  served  for  half 
the  fixed  price,  and  any  who  have  won  a  race  are  served  free 
of  charge.  There  is  in  connection  with  this  establishment  a 
school  for  noncommissioned  officers.  Each  year  the  pupils 
have  a  six  months'  course,  including  hippology,  horse  raising, 
and  the  care  of  horses  in  case  of  sickness  or  of  ordinary  acci- 
dents. The  agricultural  department  operates  eight  farms,  on 
which  range  9,000  horned  beasts  of  the  Hungarian  or  Simen- 
thal  breed.  The  methods  are  similar  to  those  for  the  raising 
of  horses.  There  is  a  chief  veterinarian,  assisted  by  two 
military  and  three  civil  veterinarians.  Each  one  examines 
all  the  stock  in  his  jurisdiction  every  day.  The  chief  veter- 
inarian makes  once  a  month  a  general  inspection  of  all  the 
animals.  The  hospital  contains  special  places  for  animals 
that  should  be  isolated. 

The  shoeing  is  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  veterinarian, 
who  has  under  him  nine  farriers,  one  of  whom  is  a  master 
farrier.  They  use  only  about  1,200  horseshoes  per  j^ear, 
principally  for  the  horses  of  the  agricultural  department. 
Those  of  the  breeding  stables  are  shod  only  exceptionally, 
even  the  service  horses  going  barefoot.  Experience  has 
proved  that  leaving  the  horses  unshod  has  a  salutary  effect 


220  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

ou  the  horn  of  the  hoof,  the  quality  of  the  foot  becoming 
fixed  in  the  breed,  so  that  tliere  are  but  few  defective  feet. 

Tlie  brand  of  the  breeding  stable,  M  surmounted  by  the 
royal  Hungarian  crown,  is  placed  on  the  right  side  of  the  back 
behind  the  withers.  An  initial  indicating  the  pedigree  of  the 
sire  is  branded  on  the  left  side  opposite. 

All  the  horses  are  very  gentle,  being  accustomed  to  man 
from  an  early  age.  They  are  never  ill-treated.  The  price  of 
the  stallions  raised  at  the  breeding  stables  is  estimated  at 
$463.  On  the  whole,  these  horses  are  good,  but  are  lacking 
somewhat  in  style.  The  stallions  are  worked  every  day  from 
two  and  one-half  to  three  hours  at  a  walk  or  trot,  and  once  or 
twice  a  week  they  are  galloped  live  or  six  minutes.  During 
the  covering  season  they  are  not  exercised  at  the  gallop. 

The  stallions  are  divided  into  two  classes,  those  that  remain 
permanently  at  the  stables  for  reproduction,  and  those  sent 
to  the  stallion  depots.  The  former  class  consists  of  5  English 
thoroughbreds,  6  half-English-breds,  4  Anglo-Norm ands,  3 
Gidran,  and  13  Nonius.  The  price  of  serving  the  best  English 
thoroughbreds  is  from  832  to  $38.60.  In  general  the  gaits  are 
not  fancy,  as  only  the  gallop  is  cultivated  for  horses  for  the 
army. 

The  stable  has  an  auction  sale  every  year  at  Budapast 
during  the  month  of  October.  Eight  horses  are  annually 
sent  from  the  stables  to  the  cavalry  school  at  Vienna  to  be 
ridden,  in  September  and  October,  at  the  hunts  with  hounds 
at  Holies. 

Stallions  are  furnished  by  the  Government  to  the  communes 
(districts)  at  a  price  ranging  from  $120  to  $200  each,  under 
the  following  conditions :  Good  maintenance,  which  is  verified ; 
maximum  price  to  be  charged  for  covering  $1.16 ;  to  cover  not 
oftener  than  twice  a  day ;  and  not  more  than  88  mares  annually. 

The  Hungarian  breeding  stables  at  Kis-Ber  have  18,000 
acres  of  land.  The  specialty  of  this  stable  is  the  reproduction 
and  acclimatization  of  English  thoroughbreds  and  of  half- 
English  thoroughbreds  to  improve  the  native  breed.  The 
celebrated  stallion  Buccaneer,  purchased  in  England,  in 
twenty-one  years  covered  726  mares,  and  his  offspring  have 
won  $1,100,000,  including  the  English  Derby  and  the  Grand 
Prix  in  1876.  Draft  horses  for  agricultural  purposes  are  also 
bred  here.  In  addition,  silver-gray  Hungarian  cattle  and 
sheep  and  hogs  are  raised.     There  is  an  annual  sale  at  the 


AUSTKIA-HUXGARY.  221 

stable  ill  June.  Since  1867,  i78  thoroughbred  colts  have  been 
sold  at  an  average  price  of  $907.30.  The  highest  average 
price  -svas  in  1885,  when  the  remarkable  average  of  $l,8r;5.60 
was  reached. 

The  breeding  establishment  at  Babolna  extends  over  10,117 
acres.  The  specialty  of  this  stable  is  the  improvement  of 
races  of  oriental  blood.  The  results  were  not  satisfactory 
with  Arabian  blood,  consequently  Syrian  mares  and  stallions 
have  been  introduced.  The  stable  sends  to  the  stallion  de- 
pots 50  horses  each  year. 

The  Hungarian  breeding  stables  at  Fogaras  are  of  the  least 
importance.  There  is  much  Arabian  blood  there.  The  small- 
ness  and  absence  of  distinction  in  the  breed  is  somewhat 
indicative,  perhaps,  of  its  proximity  to  Turkey.  Many  sheep 
of  good  quality  are  also  raised  here. 

The  stallion  depot  of  Sepsi-Szent-Gyorgy  contains  150  stal- 
lions, the  other  stallion  depots  of  Hungary  about  200  each. 

There  are  also  two  imperial  breeding  stables,  one  at  Lip- 
itza  and  the  other  at  Kladriiber,  which  raise  horses  almost 
exclusively  for  the  em^jeror's  stables.  The  first  raises  full- 
blood  Arabian  horses,  and  crosses  from  this  blood  with  Span- 
ish stock.  The  first  Arabian  stallion  sent  here  was  a  white 
9-year-old  taken  from  j^apoleon's  stables  after  the  battle  of 
Leipzig.     Nearly  all  the  horses  at  this  stable  are  white. 

The  breeding  stables  of  Kladriiber  furnish  the  heavy  horses 
of  Spanish  breed,  which  serve  for  the  imperial  gala  carriages. 
Their  gaits  are  very  j)oor. 

The  breeding  establishments  of  Austria,  Fiber  and  Ra- 
dautz,  and  their  stallion  depots  and  stallion  posts,  have  simi- 
lar organizations  and  administrations  to  those  described  for 
Hungary. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  private  breeding  stables,  but 
none  of  very  great  extent.  Among  the  most  important  of 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  stables  of  John  Becker,  Stephen 
Blaskovics,  Eleck  Forster,  Count  Alvis  Karolyi,  Count  Al- 
bert Apponyi,  and  the  stables  of  the  city  of  Hodmezo- 
Vasarhely. 

More  than  one-half  the  horses  of  the  army  are  raised  by 
civilians,  without  any  assistance  from  the  breeding  estab- 
lishments or  stallions  of  the  state,  as  the  number  of  remounts 
influenced  by  these  government  institutions  are  insufficient  for 
the  army.     The  horses  raised  by  private  breeders  naturally 


222  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

are  not  so  -aniform  in  size,  gaits,  and  other  qualities  as  those 
influenced  by  the  governmental  breeding. 

The  saddle  horses  in  general  may  be  said  to  belong  to  two 
distinct  types,  the  Galician  and  the  Hungarian  breeds.  The 
Galician  horse  is  perhaps,  for  army  use,  superior  to  the  Hun- 
garian. This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  animals  pur- 
chased by  the  remount  commissions  in  Hungary,  owing  to 
the  low  buying  price,  are  seldom  of  the  iirst  class.  The  best 
animals  go  to  other  countries,  which  make  extensive  pur- 
chases in  Hungary.  The  Hungarian  horse  is,  nevertheless, 
a  remarkable  cavalry  horse.  He  has  an  excellent  back  and 
loins,  perfect  legs  and  feet,  a  large  neck,  and  much  style.  A 
striking  trait  is  also  the  extraordinary  uniformity  of  the  type 
of  the  various  animals  influenced  by  the  breeding  establish- 
ments. Both  types  of  horses  are  extraordinarily  gentle, 
which  results  from  the  absence  of  brutality  in  their  treatment. 

As  for  the  stallions  sent  by  the  various  breeding  stables  to 
the  hunts  at  Holies,  they  are  noted,  when  the  hunts  are  over, 
by  their  riders,  who  are  army  officers,  as  to  their  endurance, 
ability,  condition  of  breathing  organs,  etc.  These  notes  are 
considered  when  the  stallions  are  distributed  to  the  breeding 
stations,  and  an  unfavorable  report  may  lead  to  the  animal's 
being  put  out  of  service. 

The  training  of  the  horses  for  the  army  begins  at  4  years. 
It  is  conducted  with  the  greatest  method  and  is  very  extended. 
In  addition  to  the  military  institute  at  Vienna,  each  cavalry 
brigade  has  a  riding  school,  where  officers  are  taught  the 
principles  and  practice  of  training  troop  horses.  This  assures 
great  uniformity  in  the  service.  A  peculiarity  of  the  riding 
to  be  mentioned  is  that  all  men  are  provided  with  a  small 
rattan  switch  f  of  a  yard  in  length,  which  is  carried  when 
mounted,  excepting  dress  occasions.  This  does  away  with 
the  touches  of  the  spur,  which  are,  especially  among  mares, 
frequent  causes  of  restlessness. 

At  the  military  institute  the  instruction  does  not  stop  with 
the  riding  school  and  training,  the  young  lieutenants  being 
sent  during  the  months  of  September,  October,  and  Novem- 
ber to  the  hunts  at  Holies.  For  this  purpose  the  emperor 
puts  at  the  disposal  of  the  institute  his  mansion,  which  has 
accommodations  for  a  great  number  of  officers,  and  stables 
for  300  horses.  The  royal  breeding  stables  of  the  monarchy 
furnish  about  150  stallions,  chosen  from  the  animals  of  8  or  9 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  223 

years,  the  riding  institute  contributing  also  a  certain  number 
of  liorses.  The  domain  keeps  80  deerhounds  bought  in  Eng- 
hind.  The  object  sought  is  not  only  to  practice  the  officers 
in  riding  at  the  gallop,  in  order  to  render  them  energetic 
goers,  but  to  acquaint  cavalry  officers  with  the  amount  of 
effort  they  can  demand  of  a  horse,  and  of  the  strength  of  the 
latter.  The  horses  are  highly  trained  for  the  hunt,  the  train- 
ing including  the  jumping  of  ditches,  hedges,  etc.  The  hunt 
consists  of  letting  loose,  in  a  very  much  cut  up  but  untim- 
bered  country,  a  deer  caught  in  the  forest  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  March.  The  animal  being  out  of  his  country  is. 
hunted,  often  in  sight  of  the  dogs.  The  horsemen  follow  the 
dogs,  crossing  behind  them  all  the  obstacles  which  they 
encounter.  These  latter  consist  principally  of  ditches,  slopes, 
etc.,  the  most  difficult  being  a  ravine  from  11  to  13  j^ards 
wide,  with  2  yards  of  water  at  the  bottom.  The  officers  ride 
well  at  obstacles,  are  well  seated,  but  yield  little  to  their 
horses,  who  jump  pressing  on  the  bridoon.  The  pace  is 
severe,  and  to  follow  it  good  horses  are  required.  These 
hunts  are  a  military  sport,  and  afford  an  excelleut  method  of 
practicing  riding  in  the  open. 


I 


I 

I 


ir.-BKLGIUM. 


[ICxtiiut  t'ldiii  "Ziicht   iiu(i  lifmoiitiiun;;-  ilt-r  Militiir-Pt'iTdc  allci-  Staateii,  '  \i\  Dr.  Paul  Goldliw.k, 

Berlin,  1001.] 


The  total  number  of  horses  in  Belgium  in  1805  was  271,527. 

The  type  of  horse  generally  raised  is  a  heavy  pack  animal, 
known  as  the  Flemish  horse  in  its  heavier  form,  and  as  the 
Ardennes  horse — the  horse  of  the  mountains — in  its  some- 
what lighter  form.  Tliere  has  been  developed,  however,  a 
considerable  industry  in  the  raising  of  tine-bred  stock. 

As  late  as  the  seventies  Belgium  produced  but  one-tenth  the 
horses  necessary  for  her  cavalry  remounts,  the  remainder 
being  purchased  abroad,  principally  in  Ireland.  Horse  breed- 
ing has  become  so  extensive  of  late,  however,  that  of  the  825 
saddle  horses  needed  in  the  army  in  1895,  only  399  had  to  be 
purchased  abroad. 

The  breeding  of  thoroughbreds  is  not  very  extensive  in  Bel- 
gium, the  number  of  stallions  for  this  purpose  in  1899  having 
been  28. 

In  1901  there  were  8  regiments  of  cavalry,  with  a  total  of  40 
squadrons,  8  depots,  and  4  field-artillery  regiments.  The 
number  of  service  horses  in  1901  was  10,875,  distributed  as 
follows:  Cavalry,  5,578;  infantry,  258 ;  artillery,  2,933;  engi- 
neers, 39;  gendarmerie,  1,814;  general  staff,  train,  etc.,  253. 
In  time  of  war  the  total  strength  is  143,000  men  and  28,600 
horses. 

The  remounts  are  supplied  on  the  basis  that  artillery  horses 
are  serviceable  about  eight  years  and  cavalry  horses  nine  years. 

The  size  of  saddle  horses  must  be  from  15  to  15^^  hands  for 
the  chasseurs;  15i  to  15^  for  the  lancers;  15^  to  15f  for  the 
guides,  and  15i  for  the  artillery.  That  of  draft  horses  must 
be  from  14i  to  15^  hands. 

The  supply  of  draft  horses  for  the  artillery  is  purchased 
almost  entirely  at  home,  the  number  so  purchased  in  1895 
being  213.  The  average  price  is  about  $164.  As  high  a  price 
as  $231.60  is  paid  for  specially  heavy  horses  from  Ireland,  for 
use  with  large  guns.  The  number  of  such  animals  purchased 
in  1895  was  19. 

23.5.55 15  (225) 


226  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

The  horses  were  formerly  purchased  from  a  contractor  by  a 
government  committee  and  then  assigned  to  the  regiments. 
This  system,  however,  led  to  many  complaints,  as  the  regi- 
ments were  unable  to  keep  the  quality  of  their  horses  up  to  the 
standard.  Of  late  the  manner  of  procuring  horses  for  the  cav- 
alry and  saddle  horses  for  the  artillery  has  been  such  that  each 
regiment  has  to  do  its  own  purchasing.  For  this  purpose  a 
board  is  convened  consisting  of  the  regimental  commander,  two 
other  officers,  and  a  veterijiary  surgeon.  The  draft  horses  of 
the  horse  batteries  are  purchased  by  a  board  of  officers  from 
various  regiments.  The  remounts  for  the  train  are  supplied 
from  condemned  artillery  horses.  There  are  no  remount 
depots,  each  regiment  training  its  own  remounts.  An  officer 
is  allowed  to  purchase  his  mounts  where  he  wishes  or  he  may 
select  them  from  the  horses  of  the  regiment.  In  the  latter 
case  the  officer  is  not  allowed  for  four  years  to  dispose  of  them 
unless  they  become  unfit  for  service. 


III.-CHINA. 


[ExtRic-t  fioiii  "ZiK-lit  iiMci   Ui-moiitiiuiii;  tier  Jlilitar-l'lVnh-  allc-r  Staateii,"  by  Dr.  Paul  Goldbeck, 

Berlin,  1901.] 


As  in  the  greater  part  of  Eastern  Asia,  the  horses  of  China 
are  small,  with  the  exception  of  those  from  Turkestan,  which 
are  somewhat  larger.     The  following  races  are  distinguished : 

(1)  The  Manchurian  race,  seldom  over  12  hands  high.  These 
are  enduring  little  animals  and  are  very  sure-footed  in  rough, 
difficult  country.  They  are  used  almost  entirely  as  remounts 
for  the  Chinese  cavalry,  especially  in  the  broken  country  of 
northern  China. 

(2)  The  West-Mongolian  horses.  These  are  considerably 
larger,  sometimes  15f  to  16f  hands  high,  but  they  are  genuine 
steppe  horses  and  useless  in  mountainous  countries. 

The  methods  of  breeding  in  Mongolia  and  Manchuria — 
which,  by  the  way,  are  the  only  parts  of  China  where  horse 
breeding  is  carried  on — is  mostly  the  unrestrained  breeding  in 
herds.  Although  the  Chinese  settlers  raise  some  horses  on 
their  farms,  the  native  Mongol  allows  his  herd  (often  number- 
ing 1,000  head)  to  run  wild  on  the  range  generally  without  even 
a  herder.  Owing  to  the  extreme  cold  of  winter  nights,  these 
horses  have  very  long  coats  (sometimes  measuring  2  inches 
in  length)  which  give  them  a  shaggy  appearance.  They  live 
by  grazing  on  the  steppe  grass  summer  and  winter.  The 
Mongol,  being  zealous  to  preserve  his  breed  of  horses  for 
himself,  sells  only  geldings — never  stallions  or  mares.  The 
geldings  are  sold  by  small  breeders  direct  to  soldiers  or  freight- 
ers.    The  large  owners  sell  only  in  lots  to  dealers. 

The  price  of  horses  varies  from  $10  to  $24.  The  principal 
feed  consists  of  a  kind  of  rice  mixed  with  small  black  beans. 
Clover,  mixed  with  chopped  straw  and  dampened,  is  used  as 
fodder.  Hay  is  unknown  to  the  Chinaman ;  grass  is  seldom 
used,  and  oats  are  raised  only  in  the  northernmost  regions  for 
export  to  Russia. 

In  the  whole  southern  part  of  China  horses  are  seldom  found 
even  as  domestic  animals,  asses  and  mules  being  preferred  for 

(227) 


228  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

driving,  the  Cliinamen  (except  soldiers)  caring  little  for  rid- 
ing. Mules  are  also  bred  quite  extensively  in  the  north,  but 
it  is  in  the  south  that  they  are  most  valuable,  being  able  to 
endure  the  damp  climate  much  better  than  the  horse. 


I 


IV.-DENMARK. 


[Rev)orted  by  Lieut.  Col.  W.  R.   Livermore,  Corps  of  Engiiiepis,  I'liited  States  Military  Attache  at 
Copenhageii  anil  Stockholm.] 


The  horses  are  obtained  only  by  purchase.  They  are  ob- 
tained in  Denmark,  Germany,  England,  and  Ireland.  In 
Denmark  the  horses  are  bought  from  breeders  and  agents,  in 
foreign  countries  only  from  horse  dealers. 

The  average  price  for  the  ordinary  cadre  horses  is  $217.08, 
for  ofiBcers'  horses  $235.84.  Expenses  in  purchase,  amounting 
to  about  $21.44,  are  included  in  this  price. 

Horses  are  purchased  and  inspected  by  the  remount  board. 
For  cavalry  they  are  half-bred  geldings  or  mares.  The  gaits 
required  are  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop.  There  are  no  regu- 
lations for  weight.  The  same  regulations  apply  to  the  saddle 
horses  of  the  artillery  as  to  the  horses  of  cavalry. 

The  draft  horses  for  the  artillery  are  bought  only  in  Den- 
mark and  are  required  to  be  Danish-bred  horses.  They  are 
as  a  rule  larger  and  heavier  than  the  saddle  horse  and  need 
not  be  as  highly  bred.  Pack  horses  are  not  used.  About 
400  horses  have  been  recently  purchased. 

There  is  no  government  breeding  establishment.  In  a 
remount  depot  on  Fyen  are  kept  some  of  the  Danish-bred 
cavalry  remounts,  of  which  about  20  are  bought  each  spring 
when  .3  years  old.  After  about  a  year  at  the  dejDot  they  are 
delivered  to  the  regiments  and  replaced  by  20  others. 

The  war  office  has  two  English  thoroughbred  stallions  and 
four  German  half-bred  stallions  which  each  year  in  the  cover 
season  are  stationed  with  horse-breeding  associations  or  with 
the  farmers  who  have  an  interest  in  and  knowledge  of  horse 
breeding*  The  price  for  covering  is  $2.68  to  $8.04.  These 
stallions  have  been  used  some  few  years. 

There  is  no  import  or  export  duty  on  horses. 

There  are  about  420,000  horses  and  no  mules  in  Denmark. 
About  3,750  horses  are  in  the  army — 2,455  in  the  cavalry,  1,014 
in  the  field  artillery,  38  in  the  train,  28  in  the  riding  school, 
15  in  the  officers'  school,  and  200  horses  of  mounted  officers 
outside  the  mounted  arms. 

(229) 


230  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

In  case  of  mobilization  for  war  about  12,100  more  horses 
would  be  required.  About  6,000  are  to  be  delivered  by  the 
local  governments,  the  remainder  to  be  bought  by  the  army 
itself  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  garrisons,  and  by  the  re- 
mount board  in  Denmark  and  foreign  countries. 

The  horses  of  the  cavalry  serve  on  an  average  9.7  years; 
the  horses  of  the  artillery  and  train  on  an  average  9.9  years. 
There  are  required  yearly  400  horses. 

The  horses  are  broken  and  trained  at  the  regiments,  the 
saddle  horses  for  one  year,  the  draft  horses  for  one-half  year. 

The  brand  of  the  remount  board  (R  K)  is  on  the  left  thigh, 
also  the  brand  of  the  detachment  (E  A  R,  D  R,  G  H  R). 

The  horses  are,  as  a  rule,  not  vaccinated.  Inoculating  with 
blood  serum  has  been  practiced  a  few  times  recently  when 
there  were  many  cases  of  lung  diseases. 

The  shoes  are  ordinary  handmade  iron  ones  of  various 
forms,  as  a  rule,  with  calks  during  winter  and  without  during 
summer. 

The  horses  are,  as  a  rule,  groomed  twice  a  day. 

The  forage  allowance  is  11.02  to  12.13  pounds  of  oats,  4.41 
pounds  hay,  and  8.82  pounds  straw  a  day,  of  which  4.41  pounds 
straw  is  for  bedding.     Compressed  forage  is  not  used. 
There  are  no  special  regulations  for  officers'  horses. 

EXTRACTS    FROM   THE    LAW   OF   1876   ABOUT    THE   HORSES   AND   WAGOXS 
NECESSARY   IN   CASE   OF   WAR. 

In  case  of  wai',  the  horse  owners  in  the  country  are  under  obligation  to 
furnish  for  the  use  of  the  army  all  the  necessary  horses  suitable  for  war 
purposes,  according  to  the  regulations  established  by  this  law. 

The  number  to  be  supplied  for  the  army  in  case  of  preparation  for  war 
are  apportioned  to  the  city  of  Copenhagen,  the  towns,  and  the  counties, 
according  to  the  regulations  established  by  the  minister  of  the  interior. 
The  county  councils  make  the  apportionment  to  the  communities  in  each 
county,  also  in  accordance  with  regulations  made  by  the  minister  of  the 
interior. 

The  magistracy  in  Copenhagen,  the  town  council  in  each  provincial 
town,  the  county  councils  in  Frederiksberg,  Frederiksvaerk,  Logstor, 
Marstal,  Ncirre  Sundby,  and  Silkeborg,  and  the  parish  council  in  the  rural 
communities  are  to  procure  at  twenty-four  hours'  notice  one  and  one-half 
times  as  many  horses,  suitable  for  war  purposes,  as  the  communities  are 
to  deliver  according  to  the  apportionment  at  the  time. 

Every  horse  owner,  in  case  of  war  preparations,  is  bound  to  comply 
with  the  orders  of  the  above-named  authorities  immediately,  and  to  deliver 
for  the  use  of  the  army  all  horses  belonging  to  him.  Any  of  the  authoi'i 
ties  named,  however,  are  authorized  to  buy  for  the  community  as  many 
horses  as  it  is  obligated  to  deliver,  on  condition  that  those  which  are  not 
taken  are  to  be  retiirned. 


DENMARK.  231 

The  horses  which  are  offered  are  to  be  sui>plie<l  each  with  four  ji^ood 
shoes,  a  cover,  girth,  and  hemp  halter. 

The  horses  for  the  quota  are  selected  by  boards,  one  appointed  for  each 
county,  and  each  consisting  of  three  members,  namely,  the  sheriff  (in 
Copenhagen  the  mayor)  as  president,  a  member  chosen  by  the  county 
council  (in  Coi)enhagen  the  magistracy),  and  a  member  appointed  from 
the  war  office. 

If  the  board  finds  any  horses  unsuitable,  the  owners  may  x)resent  others 
within  one  hour  after  all  the  horses  submitted  have  been  judged ;  if  any 
of  these  are  also  rejected,  the  board  is  authorized  to  purchase  as  many 
horses  as  are  lacking  to  complete  the  quota,  and  the  community  must 
make  up  the  difference  between  the  sum  paid  and  that  of  the  valuation. 
The  board,  if  necessary,  may  complete  the  quota  by  taking  the  horses 
from  the  community  itself,  in  which  case  the  authorities  of  the  commu- 
nity must  assist  if  necessary. 

The  horses  thus  procured  are  delivered  immediately  at  the  place  of 
muster  to  the  army.  ^ 

The  owners  of  the  horses  thus  obtained  receive  at  delivery  a  pecuniary 
compensation  eqiial  to  the  value  of  the  horses,  and  paid  from  the  treas- 
ury, either  in  cash  or  by  check,  the  price  paid  being  decided  by  the  county 
valuation  boards  according  to  the  market  price  for  horses. 

The  county  valuation  boards  consist  each  of  three  expert  and  responsible 
men,  chosen  by  the  county  council  (in  Copenhagen  by  the  magistracy). 

The  authorities  above  named,  when  choosing  horses,  are,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  avoid  horses  of  especially  high  value. 

The  transportation  and  feeding  of  the  horses  on  the  way  to  and  from 
the  places  of  muster  must  be  provided  by  the  horse  owners,  who  subse- 
quently receive  compensation  from  the  treasury  at  a  rate  fixed  by  the 
minister  of  the  interior. 

If  a  horse  owner  fails  to  comply  with  orders  given  in  accordance  with 
these  regulations,  he  is  fined  in  the  public  police  court  not  exceeding 
$26. 80  for  each  horse  involved.     These  fines  accrue  to  the  treasury. 

The  minister  of  the  interior  and  the  minister  of  war  jointly  draw  up 
regulations  concerning  the  purchase  of  horses,  and  jointly  take  the 
necessary  measures  to  execute  the  law  on  the  subject. 

EXTRACT  FROM  THE  REGULATIONS  OF  THE  REMOUNT  BOARD. 

The  remount  board  is  to  consist  of  four  members,  viz,  one  colonel  or 
lieutenant  colonel  of  cavalry,  president  of  the  board;  one  captain  and 
one  first  lieutenant  of  cavalry  (the  last  named  may  be  of  the  artillery)  or 
two  first  lieutenants  of  cavalry,  or  one  of  cavalry  and  one  of  artillery,  and 
one  veterinary  surgeon. 

One  of  the  members  shall,  if  circumstances  permit,  be  garrisoned  in 
the  same  town  as  the  president,  and,  like  him,  exclusively  do  duty  on 
the  board  and  also  perform  the  duties  of  secretary.  The  other  members 
serve  with  their  detachments  when  the  board  is  not  assembled. 

The  board  is  under  the  immediate  command  of  the  war  office. 

The  duties  of  the  board  are : 

(a)  To  purchase  the  horses  necessary  for  the  supply  of  the  army,  except 
those  needed  at  the  riding  school  and  shoeing  school. 


232  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

(b)  To  form  the  inspecting  board  in  connection  with  the  civil  members. 

(c)  To  make  reports  or  decisions  about  questions  connected  with  the 
remount  service  and  other  matters  relating  to  horses  when  called  for  by 
the  war  office. 

(d)  To  make  suggestions  about  such  reforms  in  the  army  remount 
service  as  it  considers  advisable  and  necessary. 

The  horses  are  bought  in  the  autumn  at  an  age  of  from  4i  years  to  6^ 
years,  and  in  the  spring  at  from  5  to  7  years. 

The  height  of  the  horses  must  be  from  15  to  15^  hands  when  they  are 
under  6  years ;  after  this  age  xvp  to  lof  and  16  hands. 

The  board  can,  however,  in  special  cases,  make  exceptions  to  these  rules 
governing  height  and  age,  but  in  such  cases  it  must  be  noted  in  the  report 
of  the  board  to  the  war  office. 

The  horses  which  are  sent  to  troops  are  put  down  on  a  list  as  officers' 
horses  or  cadre  horses.  With  regard  to  the  last  named  it  is  noted  whether 
the  horses  in  question  are  fit  to  "  station  out. "'  The  horses  thus  designated 
must  be  at  least  5  years  old  and  be  so  strong  that,  if  they  are  sent  to  the 
cavalry,  they  can  be  trained  for  three  months  and  then  stationed  out,  or, 
if  sent  to  the  artillery,  be  stationed  oiit  and  used  by  private  keepers  at 
once. 

To  insure  proper  competition  for  the  delivery  of  horses,  the  president  of 
the  board  gives,  in  the  public  newspapers,  advance  notice  of  each  pitx- 
chasing  journey  of  the  board. 

In  purchasing  and  distributing  horses,  it  must  be  considered  that  three- 
fifths  of  the  horses  which  are  annually  sent  to  the  cavalry  regiments  and 
artillery  regiments  are  to  be  stationed  out. 

The  president  of  the  board  distributes  the  purchased  horses. 

INSTRUCTIONS   FOR  THE  SUPERIOR  MUSTERING   BOARD. 

The  "board  of  inspection"  consists  of  four  military  members  and  is 
assisted  in  some  of  its  duties  by  three  civilian  members.  The  military 
members  are,  a  staff  officer,  who  is  president  of  the  board,  a  captain,  and 
a  first  lieutenant  (or  two  first  lieutenants),  and  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

The  civilian  members  are  appointed  by  the  ministry  of  the  interior  from 
each  "brigade  district." 

The  board  assembles  upon  the  order  of  the  war  office. 

The  duties  of  the  board  are : 

(a)  To  make  once  a  year,  in  at  least  three  places  of  each  brigade  dis- 
trict, an  inspection  of  all  the  horses  stationed  out  there. 

(&)  To  determine  whether  private  keepers  have  fulfilled  the  obligations 
in  regard  to  the  horses  stationed  out. 

(c)  To  revise  decisions  of  the  combined  regimental  muster  boards  on 
appeals  by  private  keepers. 

The  three  civilian  members  cooperate  with  the  board  in  (b)  and  (c). 

EXTRACTS   FROM  THE  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  COMBINED  MUSTERIN(i  BOARDS 
OF   CAVALRY    REGIMENTS   AND   ARTILLERY   RE(iIMENTS. 

The  combined  mustering  board  of  each  cavalry  regiment  and  artillery 
regiment  is  to  cimsist  of  the  mustering  board  of  the  regiment  and  two 
civilian  ineiubers  appointed  by  the  minister  of  the  interior. 


DENMARK.  233 

The  board  assembles  only  by  regimental  orders,  and,  as  a  rnle,  in  the 
garrison  of  the  regiment. 

The  board  is  to  observe  the  regulations  fixed  by  the  war  office  for  the 
stationing  out  of  the  horses  to  private  keepers. 

The  duties  of  the  board  are :  J 

(a)  To  distribute  and  deliver  horses  to  the  private  keepers  who  meet 
after  notification  by  the  regiment. 

(b)  To  muster  the  out-stationed  horses  when  they  return  after  notifica- 
tion by  the  regiment. 

(e)  To  make  examinations  of  the  out-stationed  horses  when  called  in  by 
the  regiment  for  that  purpose. 

(d)  To  revise  the  decisions  made  by  inspecting  officers,  and  appealed 
from  by  private  keepers. 

EXTRACTS    FROM    THE    REGULATIONS    FOR    THE    STATIONING    OUT    OF    ARMY 
HORSES   WITH   PRIVATE   KEEPERS. 

The  horses  must  be  used  in  such  manner  that  they  can  at  any  time  be 
delivered  back  to  the  detachments  in  serviceable  condition.  They  must 
be  used  for  riding,  light  driving,  and  for  field  work  in  good  soil.  But 
stone  work,  work  in  a  thrashing  machine,  mill  work,  and  public  driving 
are  prohibited.  The  horses  must  not  be  let  out  by  the  keepers  to  others. 
They  must  not  be  absent  over  forty-eight  hours  at  one  time  from  the  place 
of  stationing  out  without  permission  from  the  detachment. 

If  healthy,  the  horses  must  be  in  good,  hard  condition,  and  must  be 
grain-fed,  except  in  the  grazing  period.  If  a  natural  sickness  is  the  cause 
of  a  bad  condition,  siich  fact  must  be  proved  by  a  certificate  from  a  vet- 
erinary surgeon.  From  the  1st  of  June  to  the  middle  of  September,  it  is 
allowable  to  graze  the  horses.  If  the  hojses  are  called  in  during  this 
period,  they  should,  if  the  order  is  received  in  time,  be  stabled  and  grain- 
fed  at  least  three  weeks  before  the  day  of  assembling. 

The  horses  nnist  be  handled  with  care  in  every  respect  and  always 
be  kept  clean.  They  should  always  be  well  shod,  and  the  shoes  must  be 
removed  or  replaced  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep  the  hoofs  in  good  con- 
dition.    The  out-stationed  mares  miist  not  be  covered. 

If  a  horse  gets  sick,  it  must  be  treated  promptly  by  an  authorized  veter- 
inary surgeon,  and  the  detachments  must  be  notified  at  once,  and  again 
when  the  horse  recovers. 

The  keepers  must  comply  with  any  order  received  from  the  detachment 
regarding  calling  in  of  the  horses,  but,  if  circumstances  permit  it,  keep- 
ers will  be  given  from  two  to  three  weeks'  notice. 

The  delivery  of  the  horses  is  made  to  the  same  board  from  which 
received,  or  to  one  similarly  constituted.  The  board  examines  each  horse 
to  see  if  the  keeper  complied  with  his  agreement  and  reports  the  result. 
The  keepers  must  deliver  for  each  horse  4  good  shoes  and  a  serviceable 
hemp  halter.     The  shoes  and  halter  are  supplied  by  the  government. 

The  horses  stationed  out  will  be  inspected  by  a  detachment  officer  at 
irregular  intervals,  at  points  so  fixed  that  no  horse  need  be  brought  more 
than  2  miles  (Danish)*  from  the  place  where  it  is  stationed. 

*One  Danish  mile  equals  4.68  English  miles. 


234  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

The  horses  are  examined  annually  by  the  superior  raustering  board, 
which  consists  of  four  military  and  three  civilian  members,  the  last  named 
being  appointed  by  the  minister  of  the  interior.  This  board  selects  at 
least  three  diflferent  localities  in  each  brigade  district  in  which  to  hold 
meetings.  The  horses  which  this  board  finds  unserviceable  are  at  once 
condemned. 

For  a  violation  of  these  regulations  a  keeper  may  be  fined  by  the  inspect- 
ing officer  up  to  S2.68;  by  the  combined  mustering  board  up  to  $8.04;  by 
the  superior  mustering  board  up  to  $16.08. 

If,  on  examination,  a  horse  is  found  to  have  deteriorated  abnormally, 
any  of  the  boards  above  mentioned  can  impose  on  the  keeper  a  fine  equal 
to  the  loss  sustained  by  the  treasury.  In  such  a  case  the  horse  will,  as  a 
rule,  be  withdrawn  from  the  keeper. 

A  finding  of  an  inspecting  officer  may  be  appealed  from  to  a  combined 
mustering  board,  and  one  of  this  board,  if  involving  a  penalty  of  over 
§8.04,  to  a  superior  mustering  board.  The  sentences  of  the  last  named 
are  not  subject  to  appeal. 

Agreements  to  keep  horses  are  binding  for  three  months,  and  thereafter 
also,  until  withdrawn  after  a  notice  of  one  month. 

Keepers  must  retain  each  horse  at  least  one  year.  If  they  wish  to 
return  him  after  that  time  they  must  give  three  months'  notice  to  the 
detachment.  No  modification  of  this  rule  is  allowed  by  the  fact  of  horses' 
being  called  in  for  service.  The  detachment  can,  however,  call  in  the 
horses  without  any  notice,  if  required  to  do  so  by  the  exigencies  of  the 
service. 

The  only  compensation  due  the  keepers  is  included  in  the  "pay  for 
feed."'  This  is  calculated  by  the  day  and  is  paid  by  the  detachment 
intendants  each  month,  either  to  the  keeper  himself  or  to  a  representative 
authorized  in  writing  by  the  keeper  to  receive  it. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PURCHASE  OF  HORSES  BY 
THE  IMMEDIATE  AGENCY  OF  THE  DETACHMENT. 

The  highest  average  price  which  may  be  paid  is  fixed  for  the  officers' 
horses  at  §268,  for  other  saddle  horses  and  for  draft  horses  at  §241.20,  but 
a  detachment  must  always  endeavor  to  obtain  the  horses  at  the  ordinary 
market  price. 

In  purchasing  horses  (they  must  be  geldings  or  mares)  the  use  which  is 
to  be  made  of  them  must  be  kept  in  view,  especially  if  they  are  for  saddle 
purposes  or  draft  purposes.  They  must  be  in  good  condition  when 
purchased. 

The  following  are  the  requirements  for  saddle  horses  purchased : 

1.  They  must  be  between  6  and  10  years  of  age. 

2.  They  must  not  be  under  15^  hands  and  not  over  16  hands  in  height. 

0.  They  must  have  frames  adapted  to  riding  piirposes,  must  have 
strength,  endurance,  and  lightness,  have  sound  and  strong  legs,  and  even, 
easy,  ground -covering  gaits. 

Horses  that  amble  miist  not  be  bought. 

The  following  must  be  observed  in  purchasing  draft  horses : 

1.  They  are  to  be  of  the  same  age  and  of  the  same  height  as  the  saddle 
horses. 


DENMARK.  235 

2.  They  mtist  unite  sound  and  strong  legs  with  depth  and  width  of  body, 
have  a  ground-covering,  even,  and  fairly  easy  gait,  but  with  regard  to  the 
exterior,  as  for  instance,  the  length  of  the  neck,  and  the  junction  of  neck 
and  head,  the  requirements  need  not  be  so  rigid  as  with  the  saddle  horses. 

In  the  advertisements  about  the  purchase  of  horses  it  must  be  plainly 
stated  that  sellers  must  guarantee  against  hidden  faults,  such  as  asthmatic 
afflictions,  staggers,  cribbing,  wind-sucking,  etc.  The  seller  must  be 
required  at  the  close  of  the  transaction  to  guarantee  against  such  faults. 
The  horse  must  be  examined  before  it  is  received.  This  examination  con- 
sists of  testing  the  eyes  and  the  tongue.  The  tongue  must  be  whole  and 
free  from  old  and  deep  scars.  It  must  also  be  ascertained  whether  the 
horse  suffers  from  founder,  ruptures,  as  umbilical  rupture,  etc. ,  or  scrotal 
hernia,  or  hanging  spermatic  cord,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  that  the  geld- 
ings are  clean  cut  and  the  mares  not  with  young. 

The  muster  itself  must  take  place  on  a  pavement  and  not  on  soft  ground, 
as  otherwise  lameness  may  not  be  detected.  Hor.ses  that  are  vicious, 
shrieking,  or  ticklish,  and  horses  that,  on  account  of  former  injury  by 
saddle  or  harness,  try  to  avoid  touch  by  shaking  themselves,  must  be 
rejected.     Kicking  and  biting  anijnals  must  also  be  rejected. 

If  practicable,  each  horse  must  be  tried  at  the  inspection  with  a  rider, 
or,  if  a  draft  horse,  with  a  wagon,  to  see  if  he  is  restive  or  liable  to  bolt.  If 
this  trial  can  not  take  place,  the  seller  must  be  held  responsible  for  each 
horse's  being  broken  to  riding  or  driving,  as  the  case  may  be.  Horses 
that  are  ridden  together  or  driven  together  should  be  preferred  to 
unbroken  horses  or  such  as  are  only  matched  on  the  spot. 

If  a  detachment  of  infantry  is  ordered  to  purchase  horses  in  the  absence 
of  either  an  officer  of  cavalry  or  artillery,  or  a  military  veterinary  sur- 
geon detailed  to  assist  it,  the  detachment  is  authorized  to  seek  expert 
civilian  help  and  to  pay  a  suitable  salary  for  it. 


I 


V.-FRANCE. 

[Reported  by  Capt.  T.  Bentley  Mott,  Artillery  Corps,  United  States  Military  Attache  at  Paris.] 


Horse  and  Mule  Census. — The  horse  census  of  1900  gives 

the  following  figures : 

Total  horses  in  France... 3,303,229 

Total  mules  in  France 24, 155 

Total  horses  in  Algeria 77, 123 

Total  mules  in  Algeria -..  2, 199 


Total --- 3,306,706 

Import  Duties. — The  import  duty  is  as  follows: 

Francs  per  head. 

Horses,  stallions,  geldings,  and  mares 30 

Foals 20 

Mules 5 

Asses --- 3 

The  total  effective  of  horses  in  the  army,  both  those  belong- 
ing to  the  government  and  those  owned  by  the  officers,  is  as 
follows  (1902): 


staffs 

Military  schools 

Personnel  outside  of  staffs,  schools,  and  the  line . 

Troops  of  the  line 

Gendarmes  and  republican  guard 


Officers' 
horses. 


4,305 

132 

57.5 

17,342 

702 


23, 056 


Enlisted 
men's  horses. 


2,266 


106,  277 
11,047 


4,305 

2,398 

575 

123,  619 

11,749 


142, 646 


This  is  the  actual  effective  of  the  whole  active  army,  in- 
cluding the  gendarmes  (military  police)  and  the  republican 
guard. 

The  effective  which  forms  the  basis  of  estimates  for  the 
appropriations  is  smaller  than  this,  by  the  following  items : 


Officers. 

Enlisted 
men. 

Total. 

General  and  field  officers: 

Active  army : 7, 298 

Gendarmes  and  republican  guard 240 

7,5.38 

12,407 

Of  gendarmes  and  republican  guard 11,047 

19  94.'' 

Remainder  after  deduction  of  these  items  from  the  preceding 

15, 518 

107,183 

122, 701 

(237) 


238  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    Ji'OREIGN   ARMIES. 

These  last  figures  are  known  as  the  "budgetary  effective" 
of  horses,  because  on  this  basis  money  for  the  remount  is 
furnished  in  sufficient  sum  to  replace  each  year  one-seventh 
the  number  of  officers'  horses  (subalterns)  and  one-eighth  the 
number  of  troop  horses.  The  general  and  field  officers  have 
to  provide  their  own  mounts,  and  the  gendarmes  and  the 
republican  guard  are  mounted  from  condemned  cavalry 
horses. 

The  tables  which  follow  show : 

The  budgetary  effective  (that  is,  public  animals  in  service) 
for  1902  and  the  number  to  be  bought  in  1902; 

The  same  items  for  each  branch  of  the  service,  for  the  staffs, 
schools,  etc. ; 

The  average  prices  allowed  this  year  for  the  several  cate- 
gories of  animals. 

The  various  items  are  given  separately  for  officei's'  horses 
and  troopers'  horses,  and  again,  for  those  intended  for  service 
in  Algeria  and  Tunis. 

Each  year  are  replaced  one-eighth  the  number  of  horses 
for  troops,  one-seventh  for  officers,  and  one-eleventh  of  the 
.stallions  and  brood  mares ;  that  is,  each  year  there  are  con- 
demned 14  per  cent  of  officers'  horses,  12  per  cent  of  troop 
horses,  and  9  per  cent  of  stallions  and  brood  mares.  In  other 
words,  for  troop  horses  (saddle  and  draft  mules  and  horses) 
the  average  length  of  service  is  considered  to  be  eight  years, 
for  officers'  horses,  seven  years,  and  for  breeding  horses  eleven 
years.  The  condemnation  and  replacement  for  all  arms  is 
effected  on  that  basis. 

The  number  of  horses  and  mules  for  the  various  services 
bought  in  the  last  ten  years  has  not  greatly  varied,  so  that 
the  tables  represent  not  only  the  figures  for  this  year,  but 
also  a  fair  average  for  other  years. 

In  examining  the  item  "horses  for  infantry,  officers,"  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  all  infantry  captains  are  mounted. 

There  are  about  4,000  mules  used  in  the  army  for  all 
purposes. 

The  officers'  horses  with  which  these  tables  deal  are  tlie 
horses  of  subalterns;  generals  and  field  officers  buy  (usually 
from  the  state,  as  explained  later  on)  their  own  horses;  hence 
the  appro'priation  for  these  horses  is  not  expended,  but  only 
advanced.  To  this  end  about  1,000,000  francs  are  annually 
made  available,  but  this  amount  eventually  returns  to  the 
treasury. 


FRANCE. 


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FRANCE.  241 

THE   REMOUNT    SERVICE   IN    FRANCE. 

It  may  be  said  that  all  horses  and  mules  for  the  French 
Army  are  bought  in  the  open  market.  The  only  exception 
will  be  mentioned  under  the  heading  "Studs  and  Breed 
Farms." 

The  remount  service  is  charged  with  the  purchase  and  de- 
livery of  all  horses  and  mules  needed  for  the  military  service. 
For  the  purpose  of  the  remount,  France  is  divided  into  two 
"circumscriptions"  or  districts,  each  of  which  is  commanded 
by  a  colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel  of  cavalry ;  Algeria  and 
Tunis  constitute  a  third  district.  In  these  two  districts  there 
are  10  depots  and  11  subdepots  or  "annexes,"  each  depot  with 
its  annex  being  commanded  as  a  rule  by  a  major  of  cavalry. 
Besides  these  depots  belonging  to  districts  there  are  6  depots 
(having  11  annexes)  which  are  commanded  directly  by  the 
inspector  general  of  the  remount  service. 

For  the  purpose  of  discipline  and  police  the  remount  estab- 
lishments are  under  the  authority  of  the  corps  commanders. 

Personnel  op  the  Service. — The  personnel  is  as  follows: 

1.  An  inspector  general  holding  his  position  permanently 
and  an  adjoint  (major  general  and  brigadier  general,  respec- 
tively) ; 

2.  Commanders  of  districts  (colonels  or  lieutenant  colonels) ; 

3.  Commanders  of  depots  (with  command  and  supervision 
of  one  or  more  annexes ;  generally  majors  of  cavalry) ; 

4.  Commanders  of  annexes  (captains,  or  veterinarians  of 
the  second  class) ; 

5.  Eight  remount  companies  (five  in  France,  three  in 
Algeria  and  Tunis) ; 

6.  Enlisted  men  belonging  to  mounted  organizations  de- 
tailed for  duty  at  remount  depot  annexes. 

The  depots  are  intended  to  receive  and  care  for  the  horses 
bought  by  boards  until  ready  to  be  sent  to  the  troops  (they 
are  never  kept  longer  than  twenty  days) ;  the  annexes  to 
receive  horses  under  5  years,  to  keep  and  train  them  from  the 
time  they  are  bought  until  ready  for  delivery  to  the  troops, 
and  to  deliver  them. 

The  inspector  general  of  the  remount  service  directs  the 
service  in  France,  Tunis,  and  Algeria,  being  responsible  to 
the  minister  of  war  only,  with  whom  he  communicates 
directly.     Commanders  of  districts  and  of  depots  not  in  a 


242  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

district  may  correspond  directly  with  the  minister  ou  current 
matters. 

The  commander  of  a  district  supervises  the  work  of  his 
remount  depots,  apportions  the  men  of  the  remount  companies 
in  his  district,  and  has  in  general  the  attributes  of  command, 
visitation,  and  inspection. 

The  depot  is  the  business  unit  of  the  remount  service.  Its 
commander  is  regularly  a  major  of  cavalry  detached;  he  has 
under  him  a  captain  or  lieutenant  of  cavalry  detached  who 
bears  the  designation  of  "permanent  buyer"  (at  some  depots 
two  such  officers  are  employed),  a  veterinary,  a  disbursing 
officer,  and  a  detachment  of  remount  men. 

Horse  Boards. — The  depot  commander  and  his  assistant 
are  permanent  members  of  the  board  for  buying  horses  all 
the  year  round.  During  the  active  period,  from  October  1 
to  May  15,  when  the  board  travels  about  the  country,  a  third 
officer  is  usually  detailed  from  a  mounted  command  in  the 
region,  and  attached  as  "temporary  buyer."  Dejiots  which 
buy  horses  chiefly  for  the  artillery  may  be  increased  hy  the 
addition  of  a  captain  or  lieutenant  of  that  arm ;  he  may  be 
permanent  or  temporary  buyer.  A  horse  board  must  in  no 
case,  however,  have  more  or  less  than  three  members.  In 
order  that  the  requisite  three  members  may  be  had  for  buy- 
ing horses  that  may  be  presented  at  any  time  at  the  depot, 
for  attending  fairs,  etc.,  the  commander  of  the  depot  may, 
when  he  thinks  it  advisable,  appoint  his  disbursing  officer  or 
veterinary  as  third  member,  or  he  may  ask  for  the  detail  of 
an  officer  from  the  troops  in  the  vicinity.  He  may  make  this 
request  directly  to  the  commanding  officer  concerned.  It  is 
to  be  noticed  that  horse  boards  do  not  use  a  veterinary  in 
their  regular  buying  trips. 

The  depots  are  scattered  throughout  the  country  at  points 
best  adapted  for  receiving  and  caring  for  the  animals  pur- 
chased, and  are  all  in  the  horse-raising  sections.  The  most 
important  annex  is  at  Suippes,  department  of  Marne,  where 
a  great  part  of  the  young  horses  are  collected  and  trained. 
At  Saumur  there  exists  a  special  breaking  and  training 
school  for  horses  intended  for  the  use  of  the  other  military 
schools  and  for  the  use  of  general  officers.  Unmanageable 
horses  from  the  cavalry  regiments  are  also  sent  to  Saumur 
for  special  training.  The  extent  of  these  depots  and  the 
money  expenditures   involved   in   their  operations   may  be 


FRANCE.  243 

realized  wlien  consideration  is  given  to  the  fact  that  annually 
there  are  disbursed  for  horses  and  mules  for  the  French  army 
about  15,000,000  francs. 

Remount  Companies. — There  are  eight  remount  com- 
panies, all  composed  of  selected  cavalrymen,  but  they  are 
not  counted  in  with  the  fighting  strength  of  the  cavalry. 
The  strength  of  each  company  varies,  according  to  location. 
A  company  is  commanded  by  a  captain  with  a  variable  num- 
ber of  lieutenants.  Four  of  them  are  divided  among  the 
various  depots,  one  serves  for  all  the  military  schools  and 
three  are  assigned  to  Algeria  and  Tunis.  Their  principal 
duties  consist  in  caring  for  the  animals  at  the  depots  and 
conducting  them  to  the  regiments  or  batteries.  The  com- 
pany which  does  duty  at  all  the  schools  is  essentially  made 
up  of  stablemen  and  grooms,  but  the  administrative  control 
of  the  company  remains  with  the  company  commander, 
through  his  lieutenants  or  other  detachment  commanders, 
subject  to  the  ultimate  direction  of  the  general  officer  com- 
manding the  remount  service.  At  depots,  the  depot  com- 
mander controls  the  companies  or  detachments  of  the 
remount.  Officers  as  well  as  men  all  come  chiefly  from 
the  cavalry  and  are  selected. 

Mode  of  Purchase. — Annually,  the  minister  of  war  fixes 
the  total  number  of  animals  to  be  purchased  and  designates 
the  commands  which  are  to  be  supplied,  as  well  as  the  dates 
and  sources  of  delivery.  According  to  this  allotment  the' 
animals  are  bought  by  the  boards  and  sent  to  the  depots  or 
delivered  directly  to  the  commands.  The  former  is  the  reg- 
ular method,  the  latter  being  used  only  when  considerable 
saving  of  expense  would  ensue. 

Before  starting  out  on  a  trip  which  will  require  the  visiting 
of  several  points,  the  board  sends  notice  of  its  route  and  the 
dates  when  it  may  be  expected  at  each  locality  to  the  ' '  pr^- 
fets"  or  mayors,  who  post  notices  to  that  efi^ect  so  as  to  give 
as  much  publicity  as  possible. 

The  method  of  making  the  purchase  is  described  at  length 
on  page  250,  "Mode  of  Operation  of  Horse  Boards  in  Algeria." 

Specifications. — The  official  specifications  governing  the 
boards  in  their  purchases  relate  only  to  the  age  and  height 
of  the  horses;  for  the  most  part  the  whole  matter  is  left  to 
the  judgment  of  the  members  of  the  board.  These  officers 
are  very  carefully  selected  horsemen  and  they  are  supposed 


344  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

to  know  better  than  any  orders  could  teach  them  the  require- 
ments of  a  horse  for  the  military  service. 

The  following  rules  are  made  for  guidance  of  the  boards : 

Purchases  for  the  military  service  are  made  only  of  geld- 
ings fully  cured  from  effects  of  castration,  and  of  mares  not 
in  foal ;  the  horses  must  be  of  French  origin,  free  from  blem- 
ish, with  mane  and  tail  uncut,  and  must  have  the  conforma- 
tion and  quality  requisite  for  the  arm  of  service  to  which 
they  are  destined. 

A  board  is  authorized  to  pay  a  higher  jDrice  to  a  seller  who 
presents  a  young  horse — especially  one  coming  5  years — 
bridled  and  saddled,  broken  to  the  three  gaits,  and  uniting 
the  conditions  of  a  good  military  horse. 

Height. — The  height  must  be  as  follows: 

Cavalry :  Hands. 

Cuirassiers -.- 15^  to  16^ 

Dragoons 15    to  15^ 

Light -  14ito  15^ 

Arillery  aiid  train 15^  to  16 

Infantry  officers. 14^  to  15^ 

Mules 14itol5i 

Age. — Horses  over  8  years  old  will  not  be  bought.  Officers' 
horses  (all  arms),  cavalry  horses,  and  horses  for  the  horse 
artillery  of  independent  divisions  of  cavalry,  are  bought  any 
time  after  October  of  the  year  they  reach  3  years  of  age. 
Sometimes,  by  permission  of  the  minister,  a  few  of  these 
horses  may  be  bought  after  July.  About  10  per  cent  of  the 
horses  annually  bought  are  6,  7,  or  8  years  old ;  the  rest,  90 
per  cent,  are  5  years  or  under. 

Artillery  horses,  except  tho-e  just  mentioned,  must  be  over 
4  years,  and  are  bought  after  January  1  of  the  year  in  which 
they  reach  that  age. 

The  boards  are  authorized  to  buy  thoroughbred  horses 
after  the  16th  of  November  of  the  year  in  which  they  reach 
2^  years,  provided  the  seller  gives  a  certificate  that  the  ani- 
mals have  been  trained.  These  thoroughbred  horses  are 
divided  as  equally  as  possible  among  regiments,  and  are 
intended  for  officers'  mounts.  These  animals,  if  mares,  are 
sent  direct  to  the  regiments;  if  stallions,  to  a  depot  to  be 
castrated,  Where  they  remain  till  healed,  after  which  they  are 
sent  to  the  regiments. 

Ordinarily  the  horses  are  sent  as  bought  to  the  depot,  where 
they  are  kept  under  observation  (never  more  than  twenty 


FRANCE.  245 

days)  for  vices  or  diseases.  The  horses  over  5  years  are  then 
sent  in  convoys  to  their  destinations;  those  under  that  age 
are  sent  to  the  annexes  to  be  handled  and  kept  till  the  month 
of  October,  when  they  are  sent  in  lots  to  their  destinations. 
The  remount  men  are  used  to  take  the  horses  (usually  by  rail) 
to  their  destinations,  or  the  organizations  may  be  asked  to 
send  men  for  this  duty.  Generally  one  man  is  sent  for  every 
four  horses.  Horses  undergo  no  training  at  the  depots. 
When  horses  are  received  at  the  depots  the  greatest  care  is 
exercised  in  the  matter  of  hygiene.  Horses  that  are  at  all 
sick  are  separated  from  the  others;  lots  are  kept  together; 
each  horse  has  his  own  grooming  kit,  which  is  used  for  him 
alone;  the  watering  troughs  are  regularly  disinfected,  in  fact 
every  precaution  is  taken  against  the  transmission  of  disease. 

Besides  the  regular  purchases  by  the  remount  service, 
special  animals  may  be  purchased  by  any  of  the  mounted 
troops,  but  at  a  price  not  exceeding  the  annual  average  fixed 
amount.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  commission  within  the 
regiment  composed  of  a  field  officer,  a  captain,  and  a  veter- 
inary surgeon,  who  are  appointed  by  the  brigade  commander. 

The  authorities  of  the  cavalry  school  at  Saumur  are  also 
authorized  to  purchase,  through  a  commission  appointed  by 
the  commanding  general  of  the  school,  horses  of  pure  blood 
or  others  of  suitable  quality.  Indeed,  the  better-bred  horses 
are  not  purchased  largely  by  the  remount  service,  as  the  prices 
asked  are  higher  than  those  authorized  to  be  paid  by  that 
service,  so  that  special  authority  has  to  be  obtained  for  the 
purchase  of  superior  animals,  whether  at  the  school,  in  the 
regiment,  or  by  the  remount  service. 

In  all  purchases  whatsoever  a  written  guarantee  of  sound- 
ness and  suitability  is  always  exacted  from  the  seller,  who, 
also,  is  required  to  give  his  name,  address,  and  residence. 
That,  together  with  the  date  and  place  of  purchase,  the  price 
paid,  etc.,  form  the  basis  of  the  entry  in  the  horse-descriptive 
book  opposite  the  animal's  number,  which  number  is  branded 
on  his  near  forehoof  as  soon  as  he  is  bought.  Later  the 
number  of  the  regiment  and  the  initial  of  the  arm  are  branded 
on  the  off  forehoof.  During  the  purchasing  period  an  ab- 
stract of  the  animals  purchased  is  sent  to  the  ministry  of  war 
every  fifteen  days. 

Colts  dropped  by  mares  at  the  depot  are  taken  up  on  the 
returns  and  are  sent  to  Suippes,  the  special  depot  for  young 
horses. 


246  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

White  or  gray  horses  are  not  bought  if  the  supply  of  suit- 
able horses  of  hardy  color  is  sufficient  for  the  number  needed. 

As  much  as  1,000  francs  are  allowed  for  a  mule  in  France; 
450  francs  in  Algeria  and  Tunis. 

Pack  mules  for  the  Alpine  mountain  batteries  and  Alpine 
chasseurs  a  pied  are  bought  in  the  Alpine  region.  Mules 
bought  in  Algeria  and  Tunis  are  chiefly  for  the  train. 

About  250  horses  are  bought  each  year  in  France  for  use 
in  Algeria  and  Tunis.  No  discrimination  whatever  is  made 
against  mares  in  the  purchases. 

At  the  depots  the  horses  are  classified  and  grouped  accord- 
ing to  the  arm  of  the  service  for  which  they  are  intended, 
after  which  they  can  not  be  changed  without  a  special  report. 
Horses  over  5  years  are  usually  delivered  to  the  regiments  or 
batteries  in  separate  lots  of  20  or  more,  as  bought,  each  animal 
accompanied  by  his  descriptive  list.  Horses  under  5  years 
are  kept  at  the  annexes  and  sent  in  one  lot  to  their  destinations 
on  October  1  of  each  year.  On  arrival  at  the  stations  of  the 
troops,  the  herd  is  at  once  looked  over  by  the  veterinary  sur- 
geons, who  certify  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  animals, 
and  a  copy  of  the  certificate  is  returned  to  the  issuing  depot 
for  file.  After  the  animals  have  been  a  month  in  the  hands 
of  the  troops,  a  special  report  as  to  their  characteristics  is 
made  to  the  ministry  of  war  through  official  channels.  Horses 
which,  after  delivery,  are  found  to  be  unsound  or  of  vicious 
habits,  are  pronounced  upon  by  a  board  of  experts  and  the 
seller  is  obliged  to  take  them  back  and  pay  expenses. 

Condemnations. — Throughout  the  regiments  and  batteries 
animals  may  be  condemned  by  inspectors  general  at  any 
period,  although  in  the  cavalry  it  is  usual  not  to  present  such 
animals  oftener  than  once  a  quarter,  and  it  is  customary  at 
such  periods  to  make  requisition  for  animals  to  replace  those 
which  are  to  be  condemned  or  which  have  died.  Any  animal, 
however,  which  has  come  from  the  remount  service  within  a 
year  and  has  become  unfit  for  service  from  any  biit  accidental 
causes,  must  have  a  special  report  of  the  case  made  to  the 
ministry  of  war.  Cavalry  horses  which  have  become  unfit 
for  saddle  purposes,  but  which  are  otherwise  still  sound  and 
available  as  draft  animals,  are  reported  for  transfer  to  the 
artillery  or  to  the  train,  but  they  must  be  ascertained  to  be 
susceptible  of  at  least  two  years'  additional  service  as  such. 
All  condemned  animals  are  sold  within  fifteen  days  after 


FRANCE.  247 

approval  of  conclemuatioii,  eacli  animal  being  accompanied 
by  his  descriptive  list,  which  must  show  the  nature  of  his 
disability,  accompanied  by  a  certificate  that  the  state  guar- 
antees only  that  the  animal  is  free  from  glanders.  The  pro- 
ceeds of  the  sales  are  deposited  by  the  intendance  officer  in 
the  nearest  subtreasury.  The  condemned  animals  are  suitably 
marked. 

Funds. — The  items  of  expenditure  for  the  remount  service 
to  be  considered  and  accounted  for  are:  The  purchase  of 
animals,  expenses  of  travel  of  boards,  fees  to  veterinaries  and 
troopers  (really  extra  pay),  extra  pay  to  noncommissioned 
officers,  brokerage,  purchases  of  halters  or  yokes,  revenue 
stamps  (for  receipted  bills),  advertisements,  etc.,  and  feed  for 
animals  in  transit,  all  which  is  provided  by  the  annual  budget. 

In  addition  thereto  is  an  allowance  of  harness  and  equip- 
ments, tools,  stable  furniture,  medicine,  instruments,  etc., 
for  each  depot  or  subdepot  according  to  its  needs,  and  a 
money  allowance  or  fund  for  keeping  it  in  order,  for  horse- 
shoeing, etc.  Returns  for  all  expenditures  are  made  quar- 
terly, but  the  supplies  are  based  upon  monthly  estimates. 

Books. — The  principal  books  kept  are  those  relating  to  the 
special  functions  of  the  remount  service,  such  as  a  register  of 
animals  purchased  or  turned  in,  a  register  of  issues  to  officers 
or  to  troops,  a  register  of  colts  dropped  in  the  depot,  a  register 
of  animals  returned  to  sellers  for  vicious  habits  or  unsound- 
ness, a  register  of  animals  sold  to  officers,  a  register  showing 
changes  in  original  classification,  a  register  of  mares  in  foal 
and  animals  lent  to  civilians,  a  register  showing  transfer  of 
animals  from  one  depot  to  another  by  order  of  the  minister. 

Every  month  a  report  is  sent  in  by  the  corps  commander  of 
each  army  corps  of  the  number  of  horses  or  mules  purchased 
and  issued  within  his  district,  the  number  remaining  on  hand 
to  be  disposed  of,  and,  annually,  on  the  10th  of  January,  a 
report  of  the  number  of  condemned  animals  sold  during  the 
year. 

Horse  boards  are  instructed  to  be  careful  to  send  horses  of 
similar  type  to  each  regiment  and  even  to  each  brigade  of 
cavalry,  and  to  see  that  not  only  each  lot  fills  this  condition 
but  that  the  lots  sent  in  succeeding  years  do  likewise,  so  that 
the  horses  of  the  units  may  be  of  homogeneous  types. 

As  regards  artillery  draft  horses,  in  time  of  peace,  care  is 
taken  that  all  are  also  fit  for  the  saddle,  because  they  are  then 


248  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

used  alternately  as  near  and  off  horses ;  while  upon  war  mob- 
ilization they  are  all  to  serve  as  near  horses  and  the  off  ones 
are  to  be  supplied  by  requisition. 

A  distinction  is  made  between  sergeants'  horses  and  those 
for  corporals  and  men.  The  former  should  be  really  dragoon 
or  cuirassier  horses  and  should  be  chosen  with  an  idea  of  fur- 
nishing material  also  for  the  remount  of  officers  of  a  regiment, 
the  latter  horses  need  not  have  so  much  regularity  or  be  as 
well-bred. 

Horse  batteries  demand  especial  attention,  as  they  are  called 
upon  for  long  marches  at  rapid  gaits  on  all  sorts  of  ground. 
Only  horses  of  particular  resistance,  quickness,  and  mettle  are 
chosen  for  this  service,  and  colonels  of  regiments  and  com- 
manders of  remount  depots  are  directed  to  be  careful  not  to 
furnish  field  batteries  with  horses  suitable  for  horse  batteries, 
since  the  latter  horses  are  not  easy  to  find. 

Annexes. — These  are  establishments  of  transition  where 
young  horses  (under  5)  are  kept  from  the  time  they  are 
bought  until  they  are  delivered  to  regiments.  They  are 
maintained  on  ground  belonging  to  or  rented  by  the  govern- 
ment, or  the  commune.  Their  number  is  regulated  from 
time  to  time  by  the  minister  of  war.  An  important  part 
of  the  duty  of  a  depot  commander  is  the  supervision  of 
his  annexes,  and  he  is  expected  to  visit  them  frequently  and 
unannounced. 

An  annex  is,  according  to  its  importance,  either  commanded 
by  a  captain  of  cavalry  or  managed  by  a  veterinary  of  the 
second  class ;  but  there  is  always  a  veterinary  on  duty  at  each 
annex.  The  enlisted  men  are  recruited  for  this  special  serv- 
ice, being  chosen  from  jockeys,  stablemen,  etc.  They  are 
given  very  little  military  instruction,  most  of  their  time 
being  devoted  to  the  horses.  There  is  also  usually  a  small 
detachment  of  men  detailed  from  the  organizations  supplied 
by  the  annex.  The  number  of  men  is  generally  one  for  every 
ten  horses. 

The  annexes  are  kept  with  scrupulous  regard  to  health  and 
cleanliness.  They  have  ample  paddocks  in  which  the  young 
horses  are  turned  out  whenever  the  weather  is  not  bad.  The 
horses  are  also  given  some  work  on  a  small  track.  They  are 
hardly  ever  mounted,  but  are  handled  as  much  as  possible 
and  initiated  in  military  habits.  Their  grooming  is  not  very 
thorough,  as  the  strength  of  the  detachment  would  indicate, 
but  they  are  kept  clean  and  in  good  health. 


FRANCE.  249 

REMOUNT   DEPOTS   IN   ALGERIA   AND   TUNIS. 

The  operations  of  the  remount  service  in  Africa  are  in  gen- 
eral similar  to  those  in  France,  and  need  no  further  description 
in  addition  to  what  has  been  said.  The  depots  supply  the 
mounted  troops  stationed  in  Africa  with  practically  all  their 
horses  and  most  of  their  mules,  and  send  about  430  mules 
each  year  for  the  train  in  France.  This  is  only  about  one- 
eighth  of  the  total  number  of  horses  and  mules  bought  each 
year  in  France  for  the  train.  On  the  other  hand,  a  few  artil- 
lery horses  and  mules  are  sent  each  year  from  France  to 
Africa. 

Specifications. — Horses  purchased  by  the  depots  must 
combine  the  qualities  required  for  the  army  as  regards  dis- 
tinction, strength  of  back,  and  sturdiness  of  frame,  must  be 
of  Arab,  Barbary,  or  Arab-Barbary  origin,  whole  or  castrated, 
exempt  from  blemishes,  and  with  flowing  tail,  that  is,  with 
the  dock  of  the  tail  intact.  Mares  are  not  bought  for  troops. 
The  great  majority  of  African  troops  are  mounted  on  stallions 
and  a  small  percentage  on  geldings. 

Age  Limits. — Not  less  than  4  and  not  more  than  8  years. 
It  is  understood  by  the  stipulation  that  onlj^  horses  complet- 
ing their  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  or  eighth  year  of  age 
in  the  current  year  will  be  admitted.  Nevertheless,  horses 
of  4  years  should  be  bought  only  when  the  supply  of  horses 
of  5  years  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand.  In  any  case 
they  will  not  be  admitted  before  the  1st  of  May  in  the  year 
in  which  they  reach  the  age  of  4. 

The  same  rules  apply  to  the  purchases  of  male  and  female 
mules.  In  regard  to  mules  for  the  colonies,  however,  the  con- 
ditions as  to  age  and  size  may  be  modified  by  the  minister. 

Height. — The  height  must  be  as  follows: 

Hands. 

Horses  for  officers 14|  and  above. 

Troop  horses  for  colonies  (as  Senegal,  etc. ) 14    and  above. 

Troop  horses  for  Algeria : 

Spahis - 14i  and  above. 

Chasseurs  d'Afrique 14^  and  above. 

Mules : 

Pack 14    and  above. 

Draft 14i  and  above. 

A  tolerance  of  f-inch  is  allowed  for  animals  of  excellent 
conformation. 

All  the  horses  are  sent,  within  twenty  days,  from  the  depots 
to  their  destinations  in  bunches  of  from  10  to  20  from  time  to 


250  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

time  during  the  whole  year,  there  being  no  "establishments 
of  transition  "  as  in  France. 

An  effort  is  made  to  continue  the  same  type  and  breed  in 
each  regiment. 

The  Algerian  spahis  furnish  their  own  horses.  For  loss 
incident  to  service  they  are  reimbursed  in  the  sum  of  500 
francs  each.  They  are  furnished  forage  or  commutation. 
Each  squadron  of  spahis  has  a  remount  fund,  coming  from 
various  interior  economies,  to  cover  losses,  to  pay  for  horses 
for  indigent  members,  etc. 

Mode  op  Operation  of  Horse  Boards  in  Algeria. — 
The  operations  of  the  horse  board  are  carried  on  in  public  in 
the  most  faA^orable  places.  Order  is  maintained  by  police 
(gendarmerie,  spahis,  or  other  mounted  men,  according  to 
the  territory  occupied).  The  members  of  the  board  wear 
uniform.  The  horses  are  examined  individually.  The  places 
chosen  for  the  reception  of  the  horses  are  selected  in  such  a 
way  as  to  spare  the  breeders  too  much  trouble  in  bringing  up 
their  horses,  the  interests  of  the  treasury  being  kept  in  view. 
Wherever  practicable,  these  places  are  near  a  railway  sta- 
tion. The  horses  presented  are  accepted  only  upon  a  major- 
ity vote  of  the  members  of  the  board.  If  a  horse  is  adjudged 
acceptable,  each  member  notes  the  fact  in  his  pocketbook 
with  what  seems  a  fair  price  for  the  animal.  The  bases  for 
the  purchase  prices  are  determined  by  the  budget.  The 
horses  offered  are  received  by  the  board  without  discussion, 
in  accordance  with  memorandums  which  the  members  hand 
to  the  president.  The  memorandums  state  whether  a  horse 
is  adjudged  acceptable  or  not,  and,  in  the  former  case,  the  sum 
of  money  it  seems  to  be  worth.  The  president  of  the  board 
receives  the  memorandums  of  the  members  only  after  he  has 
drawn  up  his  own.  The  members  of  the  board,  in  making 
their  estimates,  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  bud- 
getary standards  of  price  are  but  averages,  and  that  it  is 
permissible  to  go  below  or  above  them.  The  price  of  the 
horse  passed  as  fit  to  be  bought  is  provisionally  fixed  by  the 
president.  This  price  is  the  exact  average  of  the  prices  set 
down  on  the  memorandums  of  the  members. 

When  one  of  the  members,  other  than  the  president,  con- 
siders that  the  horse  is  not  acceptable,  the  animal  may  never- 
theless be  bought,  but  in  such  a  case  the  name  of  the  member 
who   has   voted   adversely,    with  his   reasons   therefor,    are 


FRANCE.  251 

inscribed  on  tlie  register  of  purchase.  When,  however,  the 
president  himself  considers  that  a  horse  is  not  acceptable  the 
animal  is  refused  on  his  opinion  alone. 

Before  letting  the  seller  know  the  amount  of  the  average 
price  decided,  the  president  asks  him  how  much  he  expects 
to  get  for  his  horse  and  communicates  his  reply  to  the  other 
members  of  the  board.  When  the  latter  have  decided,  by  a 
last  and  rapid  examination,  that  the  seller's  demand  is  in 
agreement  with  or  in  excess  of  the  first  estimate,  the  president 
asks  each  of  the  members  whether  he  maintains  or  modifies 
his  estimate,  and  then  finally  fixes  the  average  figure  of  the 
board,  which  must  be  accepted  or  refused,  without  discussion 
by  the  owner  of  the  horse.  Nevertheless  the  price  demanded 
by  the  seller  must  be  considered  as  a  maximum  which  shall 
never  be  exceeded  by  the  purchase  board  in  fixing  the  sum 
to  be  i^aid.  The  board  should  use  great  reserve  in  making 
refusals,  so  as  not  to  depreciate  the  value  of  the  horse  by 
publicly  pointing  out  what. are  considered  to  be  faults.  The 
board  should  confine  itself  to  declaring  that  a  horse  is  not 
suitable  for  the  service  of  the  army,  unless  the  refusal  be 
based  on  causes  altogether  apparent,  such  as  faulty  build, 
insufficient  or  excessive  age,  etc. 

In  the  course  of  the  operations,  the  president  of  the  horse 
board  should  neglect  no  opportunity  of  entering  into  relations 
with  the  breeders  and  discussing  with  them  all  matters  rela- 
ting to  the  horse-raising  industry  of  the  district. 

When  the  price  is  accepted  by  the  seller,  it  is  proclaimed 
in  a  loud  voice  by  the  president  in  presence  of  the  public. 
Exception  is  made,  however,  in  the  case  of  natives,  so  that 
no  offense  may  be  given,  in  this  connection,  to  the  amour 
propre  of  certain  among  them. 

A  description  of  the  horse  is  then  taken,  but  this  descrip- 
tion must  be  verified  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the  depot. 

At  the  end  of  each  session  held  in  the  open  air,  the  horses 
bought  are  collected  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been 
received,  and  a  serial  number  is  lightly  branded  on  the  left 
side  of  the  neck  of  each.  After  the  horse  has  reached  the 
depot,  his  number  is  branded  on  the  near  forehoof .  Later 
the  number  of  the  regiment  and  the  initial  of  the  arm  are 
branded  on  the  off  forehoof. 

In  the  colonies  outside  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  the  remount 
is  effected  by  means  of  purchases  in  the  colony  if  suitable 


252 


REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 


horses   are   obtainable,  otherwise   the   necessary  number  is 
sent  from  France  and  Algeria, 


REMOUNTS   OF   OFFICERS. 

To  officers  of  all  grades  and  arms  and  to  all  military  offi- 
cials and  employees  horses  are  furnished  for  the  most  part 
gratuitously  or  else  upon  easy  terms. 

Horses  are  furnished  in  three  ways:  (1)  gratuitously; 
(2)  on  the  installment  plan;  (3)  by  sale  outright. 

The  number  of  horses  which  officers  are  entitled  to  acquire 
and  keep  at  the  government  expense  is  given  in  the  table 
following : 


War 

footing. 


Major  general 

Brigailier  general 

Coldiifl  and  lieutenant  colonel  (staff) 

CaptuiM  (staff) 

Colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel  of  infantry 

Colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel  of  cavalry  or  artillery 

Major  of  infantry 

Major  of  cavalry  or  artillery 

Captain  of  infantry 

Captain  of  cavalry  or  artillery 

Lieutenant  of  cavalry 

Lieutenant  of  artillery 

Surgeon  major  of  infantry 

Surgeon  major  of  artillery 


1.  Gratuitous. — All  mounted  officers  below  the  grade  of 
major  are  mounted  gratuitously  on  both  peace  and  war  foot- 
ing ;  for  those  above  this  rank,  the  number  of  horses  required 
on  a  war  footing  is  furnished  gratuitously,  provided  the 
officers  own  already  the  horses  required  on  a  peace  footing. 
All  reserve  and  territorial  officers  are  mounted  gratuitously 
upon  war  mobilization.  Officers  who  are  entitled  to  gratui- 
tous mounts,  but  who  prefer  to  provide  their  horses  at  their 
own  expense,  have  to  make  in  writing  application  for  this 
privilege.  Some  officers  who  can  afford  it  prefer  to  do  this 
as  they  then  have  complete  control  of  their  mounts  and  can 
use  them  in  harness  or  lend  them  out,  which  in  case  of 
horses  furnished  by  the  state  gratuitously  is  absolutely  for- 
bidden. 

If  among  the  horses  furnished  to  his  regiment  for  officers' 
mounts  an  officer  does  not  find  a  horse  that  would  suit  him, 
he  can  buy  one  in  the  market  and  present  it  to  the  horse 
board  for  purchase.  If  the  horse  is  accepted,  the  officer  is 
paid  back  the  estimated  price  within  the  regulation  amount 


FRANCE.  353 

allowed,  and  the  liorse  is  regarded  as  the  property  of  the 
state  furnished  to  the  officer  as  a  gratuitous  mount  in  the 
regular  way  and  is  subject  to  the  usual  restrictions.  Such  a 
horse  can  not  be  exchanged,  returned,  or  condemned  within 
eighteen  months  without  authority  of  the  minister. 

2.  On  the  Installment  Plan. — All  officers  above  the 
rank  of  captain  are  obliged  to  own  the  number  of  horses 
indicated  in  the  table  given  above.  Upon  his  promotion,  a 
captain  can  buy  at  a  reduced  price  (depending  upon  how  long 
the  horse  has  been  in  his  hands)  the  mount  formerly  fur- 
nished him  gratuitously,  paying  either  outright  or  by  install- 
ment, all  these  amounts  being  minutely  regulated  according 
to  how  long  the  horse  has  been  in  service. 

Any  officer  above  the  grade  of  captain  can  buy  on  the 
installment  plan  from  the  remount  service  the  number  of 
horses  to  which  he  is  entitled,  selecting  the  horses  from 
among  those  on  hand  for  the  purpose,  and  paying  $3  a  month 
per  horse.  The  horses  remain  the  property  of  the  state, 
which  not  only  maintains  them,  but  even  replaces  them  if 
lost  incident  to  the  service.  When  the  total  of  the  installs 
ments  equals  the  price  paid  for  the  horse  by  the  state,  plus 
one-tenth,  he  becomes  the  property  of  the  officer. 

Officers  may  select  in  the  market  any  horses  which  they 
would  like  to  take  on  the  installment  plan,  and  submit  them 
to  the  boards.  If  a  liorse  is  accepted,  the  board  pays  his 
estimated  value  and  then  the  officer  receives  his  mount  under 
the  conditions  just  stated.  Such  a  horse  may  not  be  returned 
or  condemned  within  eighteen  months. 

3.  By  Sale  Outright. — All  officers  above  the  grade  of 
captain  can  select  from  available  horses  provided  by  the 
remount  service  the  number  to  which  they  are  entitled  and 
purchase  the  horses  at  the  estimated  value,  paying  the  price 
in  two  installments.  These  horses  become  their  absolute 
property,  but  if  they  desire  to  sell  the  horses  the  state  has  the 
right  of  refusal. 

Subalterns  who  have  renounced  their  right  to  gratuitous 
mounts  are  obliged  to  buy  their  horses  in  the  market.  Any 
officer  may  keep  at  the  expense  of  the  government  one  horse 
above  the  number  allowed  him  by  regulations,  provided  he 
has  bought  his  horses  in  the  market. 

The  minimum  age  of  horses  furnished  by  the  state  to  officers 
by  either  of  the  three  methods  above  cited  is  as  follows :  Four 


254  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

years  for  tliorouglibred  horses ;  5  years  for  Arabian  or  Bar- 
bary  or  full-bred  Anglo- Arabian  horses ;  G  years  for  horses  of 
all  other  breeds. 

Officers  are  pecuniarily  responsible  for  accidents  resulting 
in  the  loss  or  injury  of  horses  which  they  hold  as  property  of 
the  state,  if  such  accidents  result  from  their  own  fault.  A 
permanent  board  of  survey  is  provided  for  passing  on  all  such 
matters.  If  the  officer  is  relieved  from  responsibility  he  is 
furnished  another  horse.  Another  horse  is  likewise  furnished 
when  the  horse  the  officer  holds  is  condemned  as  unfit  for 
service. 

Corps  or  brigade  commanders  may,  under  certain  restric- 
tions, authorize  officers  to  exchange  horses. 

Establishments  WHICH  Mount  Officers. — In  general  an 
officer  of  a  mounted  organization  may  select  his  mount  from 
the  whole  number  of  horses  available  in  the  organization, 
with  the  exception  of  those  already  assigned  to  officers  or 
noncommissioned  officers  or  those  reserved  for  the  remount 
of  officers  not  belonging  to  a  mounted  organization.  General 
officers,  if  they  do  not  buy  their  horses  in  the  market,  are 
permitted  to  choose  among  the  horses  of  the  war  school  at 
Paris,  at  Saumur,  or  in  the  remount  depots  of  Paris  and 
Suippes,  where  special  classes  of  horses  known  as  ' '  general 
officers'  horses  "  are  trained  for  their  purposes.  At  the  vari- 
ous schools  officers  generally  choose  among  horses  furnished 
to  the  school,  omitting  of  course  the  expensive  "  chevaux  de 
carriere"  and  "chevaux  de  manege."  Officers  not  belonging 
to  mounted  organizations  are  mounted  from  horses  of  desig- 
nated mounted  regiments ;  thus  officers  of  the  general  staff,  of 
foot  artillery,  engineers,  etc.,  are  mounted  by  the  light  artillery 
and  dragoons ;  infantry  captains,  from  horses  of  French  blood 
in  the  light  cavalry,  etc.  Field  officers  of  foot  organizations 
are  mounted  from  the  animals  selected  for  the  purpose  in  the 
cavalry  regiments  of  their  region.  They  may  also  select  a 
horse  from  a  depot  if  they  pay  for  his  delivery.  Officers  of 
the  remount  service  choose  their  horses  at  the  depots  and  it 
goes  without  saying  that  they  are  well  mounted.  Officers 
who  are  mounted  gratuitously  may  not  choose  among  horses 
intended  for  the  officers  buying  their  mounts  for  cash  or  on 
the  installment  plan.  Officers  choose,  in  general,  according 
to  rank. 


FRANCE.  255 

Gray  horses  are  ridden  by  officers  of  tlie  noucombatant 
category — surgeons,  quartermasters,  commissaries,  etc. 

Under  no  circumstances  is  an  officer  allowed  to  sell  a  horse 
obtained  from  the  state,  directly  either  to  a  civilian  or  to  an- 
other officer ;  the  sale  must  be  effected  through  the  remount 
service. 

A  horse,  after  having  been  once, assigned,  is  rarely  taken 
from  the  trooper  without  his  consent. 

About  250  thoroughbred  horses  are  bought  by  the  remount 
service  each  year  for  delivery  to  officers. 

In  mounted  regiments  the  extra  horses,  subject  to  sale  or 
assignment  to  officers,  are  divided  into  five  classes. 

1.  Those  to  remount  the  officers  of  the  command. 

2.  Those  to  remount  officers  of  the  general  staff  and  of  en- 
gineer troops,  besides  ten  horses  of  the  lots  pertaining  to  the 
cuirassiers  and  the  dragoons  (extra-heavy  animals)  reserved 
every  quarter  to  remount  officers  of  the  gendarmerie. 

3.  Those  to  remount  infantry  officers  (of  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain and  above),  intendance  officers,  surgeons,  administration 
officers,  all  at  the  rate  of  ten  horses  per  regiment  of  the  light 
cavalry  (chasseurs  a  cheval  and  hussars). 

4.  Those  specially  selected  for  general  officers,  the  cavalry 
schools,  and  the  superior  war  school. 

5.  Those  intended  for  the  enlisted  men  of  the  gendarmerie 
being  aged  horses  of  12  years  or  more  and  not  possessing  the 
necessary  aptitude  for  war  service  in  their  arm  (cavalry),  but 
still  susceptible  of  good  use  in  time  of  peace,  particularly  for 
the  gendarmerie  (mounted  military  policemen).  The  horses 
of  class  5  are  never,  for  any  reason,  again  given  out  to  cav- 
alrymen. 

These  classes  are  made  up  and  their  numbers  completed 
every  quarter.  Horses  turned  in  by  officers  'aot  belonging  to 
a  regiment  are  classed  with  those  of  the  category  to  which 
they  properly  belong.  In  giving  out  horses  from  any  of  the 
classes,  priority  of  the  applications  is  observed. 

Officers  who  are  required  to  own  their  mounts,  particularly 
majors  and  those  of  higher  rank,  with  the  exception  of  general 
officers,  are  granted,  besides  forage,  shoeing,  and  veterinary 
expenses,  an  extra  allowance  at  the  rate  of  from  $G  to  $12  per 
month.  In  addition  to  this  allowance  for  horses  owned,  all 
officers  who  are  required  to  be  mounted,  whether  they  draw 
their  mounts  from  the  state  or  purchase  them,  are  allowed 


25G  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

the  cost  of  the  first  horse  and  equipments,  wliich  cost  varies, 
according  to  grade,  from  $90  for  a  newly  appointed  sublieu- 
tenant up  to  $230  for  an  officer  of  cuirassiers. 

"CHEVAUX  DE  MANEGE"  AND  "  CHEVAUX  DE  CARRIERE." 

A  regular  effective  of  about  366  horses  of  the  first  category 
and  473  of  the  second  is  maintained  for  the  use  of  the  schools 
where  riding  is  taught,  as,  for  instance,  Saumur,  St.  Cyr,  the 
artillery  schools  at  Versailles  and  Fontainebleau,  the  war  col- 
lege at  Paris,  etc. 

The  "cheval  de  manege,"  as  the  name  indicates,  is  a  riding- 
hall  horse,  used  for  this  purpose  alone  and  never  for  outdoor 
work.  The  "cheval  de  carriere,"  on  the  other  hand,  is  used 
solely  for  outdoor  work,  in  the  outdoor  riding  school  (a  regu- 
lar adjunct  of  the-  "riding  hall"  at  all  schools  and  most 
cavalry  posts).  The  nearest  English  equivalent  for  "cheval 
de  carriere"  is  "cross-country  horse."  These  horses  are 
selected  and  trained  with  great  care  and  will  exhibit  to  the 
instructor  the  smallest  mistake  committed  by  their  riders. 
They  are  of  course  taught  to  jump  ordinary  obstacles,  but 
they  are  not  used  in  the  military  steeplechases  nor  as  troop 
horses.  The  ideal  type  of  the  "cheval  de  carriere"  is  the 
Irish  hunter.  The  average  price  allowed  for  this  type  of 
horse  is  about  $360,  but  authority  may  be  and  often  is 
obtained  to  pay  much  more — even  as  high  as  $500  and  $600, 
The  price  allowed  for  the  riding-hall  horse  is  $250,  but  often 
more  is  paid.  Some  magnificent  animals  of  both  types  are 
to  be  seen  at  the  schools.  Besides  these  two  types  of  horses, 
there  are  maintained  for  the  schools  about  1,375  "troop 
horses"  for  outdoor  drills  and  exercises  under  arms 

STUDS  AND  BREED  FARMS. 

As  already  stated,  horses  are  obtained  for  the  French  army 
almost  wholly  by  purchase  in  the  open  market.  The  only 
exception  is  furnished  by  a  few  young  horses,  raised  on  the 
military  breed  farms  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  which  are  found 
unsuitable  for  breeding  purposes  and  are,  therefore,  sold  or 
turned  over  to  the  troops. 

Government  Studs. — The  22  government  studs  existing  in 
France  proper  are  administered  by  the  department  of  agri- 
culture and  do  not  furnish  horses  to  the  army.     The  object 


FRANCE. 


257 


of  these  studs  is  to  furnish  good  sires  of  every  race  to  horse 
breeders,  especially  small  farmers  throughout  France,  for  the 
purpose  of  improving  the  blood  of  French  horses.  The  serv- 
ices of  the  stallions  are  paid  for,  by  the  owners  of  the  mares 
served,  at  rates  fixed  according  to  the  value  and  reputation 
of  the  stallion. 

Especial  attention  is  of  course  paid  to  selecting  stallions 
suitable  for  military  purposes,  because  the  government  wishes 
to  increase  the  production  of  such  animals  and  to  encourage 
breeders  to  raise  them.  A  ready  market  and  good  prices 
exist  for  military  horses.  But  the  army  has  nothing  to  do 
with  these  establishments  and  is  not  supplied  by  them. 

Army  Studs  and  Breed  Farms. — These  exist  only  in 
Tunis  and  Algeria,  and  the  former  are  maintained  at  and  in 
connection  with  the  remount  depots  in  those  countries. 
There  are  four  depots,  three  branches,  two  annexes,  and  two 
breed  farms,  located  as  follows : 


Kemoiint  lU-pots  and 
studs. 

Establishments  attached  to  these  depots 
and  studs. 

Military  divisions  in  which  the 
depots,  annexes,  and  farms 

Branches.       Annexes. 

Breed  farms. 

are  located. 

Blidah                 

Milianah  ._ 

Mustapha  _ 

Tiaret 

L'Allelik 

Sctif 

L'Allelik  .. 

Constantine. 

Tunis 

Tunis. 

The  breed  farm  is  maintained  for  the  purpose  of  rearing 
stallions  for  the  government  studs.  The  expenses  of  all  these 
establishments  come  from  the  appropriations  for  the  army, 
the  number  of  stallions  to  be  maintained  being  fixed  in  the 
appropriation  bill  each  year;  for  1902  it  is  600.  One-eleventh 
of  these  animals  is  replaced  each  year,  the  average  j)rice  this 
year  being  $292.50  per  stallion,  or  the  total  for  the  55  stallions 
required  in  1902,  $16,087.50. 

The  official  reason  for  the  existence  of  these  studs  in  Algeria 
and  Tunis  is  "to  increase  the  number  and  improve  the  race 
of  horses  in  those  countries." 

As  each  stud  is  attached  to  one  of  the  remount  depots,  the 
same  personnel  of  officers  and  men  suffices  for  both  services. 

Personnel. — This  consists  of  a  colonel  or  lieutenant  colo- 
nel, director  of  the  remount  and  stud  establishments,  who  has 
the  same  functions  as  an  officer  commanding  a  remount  circum 
scription  in  France.    He  directs  and  controls  the  operations  ot 
the  various  establishments  in  all  that  concerns  the  purchase 


258  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

of  the  horses  and  their  hygiene,  appoints  the  noncommis- 
sioned officers,  grants  or  forwards  applications  for  leaves  of 
absence,  makes  recommendations  to  the  inspector  general 
of  the  remount  service,  inspects  the  various  depots,  presides 
over  horse  boards  when  he  sees  fit,  makes  recommendations 
to  the  inspector  general  as  to  stallions  which  should  pass 
from  the  remount  to  the  stud  service,  advises  the  inspector 
general  as  to  the  composition,  number,  and  location  of  the 
stations,  and  supervises  the  matter  of  service  of  the  mares. 
His  reports  go,  one  copy  to  the  inspector  general  of  the  re- 
mount service  and  the  other  through  the  general  commanding 
the  nineteenth  corps  (Algeria)  to  the  minister  of  war. 

The  general  officer,  who  is  the  permanent  inspector  general 
of  the  remount  service,  inspects  and  directs  this  service  in 
the  same  way  as  he  does  the  remount  service  in  France,  being 
responsible  to  the  minister  alone.  His  reports  and  orders  do 
not  go  to  the  generals  commanding  cavalry  brigades  and  ter- 
ritorial divisions  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  but  are  sent  directly 
to  the  minister  or  the  commanding  officers  of  the  remount 
depots,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Commanding  Officers  of  Depots. — Each  depot  and  annex 
is  commanded  by  a  major  of  cavalry  (detached),  aided  by  two 
officers  (one  a  "permanent  buyer")  who  are  detailed  generally 
from  the  troops  stationed  in  the  region — a  veterinarian  and  a 
company  or  detachment  of  enlisted  men  of  the  remount  serv- 
ice. Each  branch  depot  is  commanded  by  a  captain  detailed 
from  the  troops  of  the  region,  v^ith  a  veterinarian  and  detach- 
ment of  remount  men  under  an  officer  of  the  remount  service. 
The  personnel  of  each  establishment  constitutes  a  horse  board 
for  purchasing  horses  and  also  conducts  the  affairs  of  the 
stud.  During  the  buying  time,  i.  e.,  from  January  15  to 
July  1,  each  horse  board  may  be  increased  by  one  officer, 
taken  from  mounted  organizations  serving  in  the  region.  In 
cases  of  large  horse  transactions  the  boards  may  be  doubled 
by  details  of  additional  officers.  In  general,  the  command- 
ing officers  of  depots  have  the  attributes  of  post  commanders. 

There  are  actually  three  remount  companies  of  about  300 
men  each,  detailed  for  service  at  the  establishments  in  Africa. 
They  have  a  special  uniform,  are  armed  with  the  revolver  only, 
are  given  extra  pay  (from  5  to  13  cents  a  day),  and  are  not  put 
through  drills  and  exercises.  These  men  are  usually  old  sol- 
diers, selected  for  their  knowledge  and  love  of  horses,  and 


FRANCE.  259 

the  best  of  them  are  detailed  for  work  with  the  stallions. 
The  officers  of  these  companies  are  employed  chiefly  in  the 
stud,  though  they  may  serve  on  horse  boards.  They  are 
sent  on  frequent  inspections  of  the  stallion  stations.  Those 
that  show  most  ability  are  proposed  for  appointment  as 
"permanent  buyers." 

During  the  season  each  station  is  visited,  without  previous 
notice,  by  officers  of  the  depot  twice  during  a  month  and 
oftener  if  necessary.  The  greatest  latitude,  however,  in  this 
and  in  all  matters  is  left  to  the  commanding  officer  of  depots. 

Early  in  January  each  year,  all  the  noncommissioned  offi- 
cers and  privates  thought  to  be  capable  of  taking  charge  of 
stations  are  brought  together  at  each  depot  and  branch  and 
given  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  in  their  functions. 
Conditions  under  which  a  stallion  should  be  used  for  serving, 
kind  of  stallion  to  be  used  for  registered  mares,  etc.,  and 
everything  else  possible  for  their  instruction  on  this  detached 
service  is  taught. 

The  service  of  stallions  in  all  the  army  studs  is  absolutely 
gratuitous.  All  horse  raisers,  European  or  native,  have  a 
right  to  these  services  without  discrimination.  However, 
light-draft  mares  of  European  blood  are  not  to  be  served  ex- 
cept by  Barbary  or  Arabian  stallions  chosen  among  those  of 
stocky  build.  Registered  mares  are  served  only  by  stallions 
registered  in  the  Algerian  stud  book  or  thoroughbred  stal- 
lions of  French  register.  Each  locality  is  obliged  (through 
its  civil  and  military  authorities)  to  furnish  stable  and  hous- 
ing for  men  and  horses  during  the  serving  season.  If  in  any 
locality  such  accommodations  are  not  supplied,  or  are  not 
satisfactory,  no  station  is  established  there.  The  season  be- 
gins on  January  15.  The  service  of  the  mares  begins  at  each 
station  four  days  after  the  arrival  of  the  stallions,  and  lasts 
till  the  15th  or  sometimes  the  30th  of  June.  Generally  speak- 
ing, service  is  made  by  each  horse  once  a  day,  in  the  morning 
preferably,  though  some  horses  may  be  allowed  to  serve 
twice  in  the  same  day.  All  stallions,  without  exception, 
have  one  day  of  rest  in  the  week. 

Grooming  and  Forage. — The  stallions  are  generally 
groomed  but  once  a  day,  usually  in  the  evening;  but  they 
are  rubbed  down  before  and  after  exercise.  After  grooming 
they  are  watered  and  then  fed  oats  and  barley. 

The  ration  for  a .  stallion  is  as  follows :  Hay,  6i  pounds ; 
straw,  11  pounds;  oats  or  barley,  11  pounds.     All  stallions 


200  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

of  French  register,  and  other  horses  also  if  deemed  necessary, 
may  be  allowed  oats  instead  of  barley.  Draft  stallions  are 
allowed  4i  pounds  oats  extra  dnring  the  season.  For  thirty 
days  at  the  end  of  the  season,  each  stallion  gets  9  pounds  of 
carrots  a  day,  in  addition  to  the  ration. 

In  July,  August,  and  September  the  stallions  are  exercised 
only  at  a  walk,  and  where  it  is  possible  baths  in  salt  or  fresh 
water  replace  grooming  every  two  or  three  days.  During 
this  period  an  effort  is  made  to  treat  all  troubles  caused  by 
the  fatigue  of  the  serving  season.  From  October  1  to  Janu- 
ary 31  they  are  given  progressive  exercise  to  reduce  fat,  which 
is  the  chief  cause  of  debility.  They  are  ridden  at  least  two 
hours  a  day  from  8  to  12  miles.  At  whatever  hour  the  exer- 
cise takes  place,  they  are  never  watered  until  two  hours  after 
coming  in. 

Source  of  Supply. — The  stallions  for  these  army  studs 
come  from  two  sources:  First,  those  from  the  army  breed 
farms  in  Africa,  and  second,  those  bought  by  horse  boards  in 
their  regular  rounds.  When  a  board  buys  stallions  which  it 
thinks  would  make  good  breeders,  this  fact  is  noted  on  their 
descriptive  lists  when  they  are  sent  to  the  depots,  and  when 
the  director  makes  his  inspections  he  selects  from  among  them 
the  best,  which  in  the  next  season  are  given  trials.  Those 
not  so  selected  are  sent  immediately  to  the  troops.  Later  the 
director  recommends  to  the  inspector  general  those  which  he 
thinks  should  be  transferred  permanently  to  the  stallion 
depots,  the  number  each  year  being,  of  course,  determined 
by  the  appropriations  for  this  purpose.  The  others  are  sent 
to  the  troops. 

These  "trial  stallions"  are  used  during  the  season  accord- 
ing to  their  maturity.  Those  4  years  old  and  some  of  5  years 
serve  not  oftener  than  once  or  twice  a  week. 

The  latest  figures  are  for  1901,  and  among  them  the  follow- 
ing are  of  interest : 

The  total  number  of  stallions  employed  in  the  army  studs 
was  845,  thus  divided  as  to  race : 

English  tlioroiiglibred 1 

Arabian  thoroughbred ^ 79 

A-rab-Baj-bary 104 

Barbary 661 

Total 845 


I 


FRANCE.  20 1 

The  total  number  of  mares  served  was  32,807,  and  the 
number  of  colts  reported  by  breeders,  9,960. 

There  are  about  250  fewer  stallions  appropriated  for  in 
1902  than  there  were  in  1901.  The  reason  for  the  difference 
has  not  been  officially  explained. 

Army  Breed  Farms  in  Algeria. — There  are  two  of  these, 
one  at  Tiaret  and  the  other  at  I'Allelik.  The  latter  has  been 
recently  established  and  is  not  so  important  as  the  former, 
which  will  be  described. 

The  object  of  maintaining  these  farms  is  to  rear  and 
furnish  the  government  studs  in  Algeria  and  Tunis  (and 
eventually  in  France)  with  (1)  breeding  stallions  of  the  thor- 
oughbred Oriental,  that  is,  Arabian  type;  (2)  breeding  stal- 
lions of  the  Barbary  race  improved  by  an  Arabian  cross ;  (3) 
breeding  stallions  of  the  Barbary  race  improved  by  any 
other  advisable  selected  cross. 

The  establishments  are  governed  in  the  same  way  as  the 
stallion  and  remount  depots  and  are  under  the  direction  of 
the  same  higher  officers.  Each  comprises  a  farm  on  which 
the  forage,  etc.,  is  raised,  and  the  necessary  stables,  barracks, 
and  buildings,  grooms,  and  laborers. 

The  personnel  consists  of  (1)  a  captain  or  lieutenant  of  cav- 
alry, commanding;  (2)  a  lieutenant  of  cavalry,  assistant  or 
disbursing  officer ;  (3)  a  lieutenant  of  the  remount  service, 
commanding  a  detachment  of  his  men;  (4)  a  veterinarian; 
(5)  a  sufficient  number  of  noncommissioned  officers  and  pri- 
vates of  the  remount  service,  and  laborers. 

The  effective  is  established  by  the  minister  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  director  general  of  the  remount  service, 
according  to  the  needs  and  development  of  the  farm.  The 
men  are  chosen  from  among  the  lightest  and  best  horsemen 
in  the  three  companies  of  remount  in  Algeria. 

The  maximum  number  of  animals  prescribed  for  the  serv- 
ice is:  (1)  4  stallions  of  either  Arab  or  Barbary  stock;  (2) 
45  mares  of  Arab  or  Barbary  or  Arab-Barbary  stock;  (3) 
colts  gotten  of  the  foregoing  on  the  farm ;  ( 4)  the  mules  or 
oxen  necessary  for  the  farm  work. 

The  officers  of  the  breed  farm  conduct  all  its  affairs,  super- 
vise the  rearing  and  training  of  the  horses,  form  boards  for 
purchasing  horses  in  the  neighborhood  for  the  establishment 
and  for  distributing  prizes  to  breeders,  keep  the  stud  book, 
and  inspect  the  stallion  stations  during  the  season. 


262 


REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 


All  colts  are  regularly  trained  from  the  age  of  3  years, 
their  track  records  carefully  kept  and  copies  sent  to  the 
inspector  general  of  the  remount  service.  During  July  and 
August,  however,  no  work  is  required  of  these  young  horses. 
When  stallions  3  years  old  have  been  well  broken  they  are 
sent  to  the  various  studs  in  Algeria  and  Tunis;  the  mares  of 
corresponding  age  are  served  the  following  spring.  Stallions 
and  mares  which  are  no  longer  valuable  as  breeders,  and  colts 
and  fillies  which  are  not  adjudged  suitable  for  reproducers, 
are  recommended  to  the  inspector  general  either  for  sale  or 
for  distribution  to  the  troops. 

Generally  the  work  of  the  farm  is  done  by  soldier  labor, 
but  civilian  labor  may  be  hired  or  military-prison  labor  used. 

The  expenses  for  buildings,  extra  pay,  and  incidentals  for 
1902  is  estimated  at  $7,304.70. 

FORAGE    ALLOWANCE. 

The  allowance  in  oats,  hay,  straw,  etc.,  is  prescribed  for 
each  class  of  animals  and  for  each  kind  of  service,  as  peace 
footing,  war  footing,  bivouac,  marches,  camps  of  maneuver, 
on  trains,  at  sea,  etc.  The  following  extracts  from  the  tables 
are  deemed  sufficient : 


Each  horse,  pounds  per  day. 

France. 

Peace  footing.             War  footing. 

1 

.\t  sea. 

Hay. 

Straw. 

Oats.    Hay. 

1 

Straw. 

Oats. 

Hay. 

Bar- 
ley. 

Barley 
meal. 

Bran. 

M'ater. 

Cuirassiers,  artillfrr  at- 
tiiilied  to  iii(i.<iiv.cav__ 
Field   artillery   and    foot 

7.7 
5.5 

5.5 
5.5 
5.5 

8.8 
7.7 

7.7 

7.7 
7.7 

U.5 
11.5 

11.0 
10.0 
8.8 

7. 7 
5.5 

5.5 
5.5 
5.5 

5.0 
4.4 

4.4 
4.4 
4.4 

12.7 
12.6 

12.1 
11.0 
10.0 

7.7 
6.6 

6.6 
5.5 
5.5 

5.5 
4.4 

4.4 
4.0 
4.0 

3.3 
3.3 

3.3 
3.3 
3.3 

Gal». 
4.2 
4.0 

Dragoons,  train,  clievaux 
deniani'ge,  gendarmes, 
etc 

Light  cavalrj-,  infantry, 
nonconibatant  officers.. 

All  mules,  and  in  Algeria 
all  horses  and  mules 

4.0 
4.0 
4.0 

Oats  may  be  replaced  as  follows :  By  corn,  barley,  or  rye, 
at  weight  for  weight ;  by  wheat,  beans,  or  pease,  at  two-thirds 
weight  of  oats. 

AVheat,  beans,  and  pease  are  not  allowed  in  total  substitu- 
tion ;  the  other  grains  are  so  allowed  when  absolutelj'  neces- 
sary. The  regular  articles  of  issue  are  oats,  hay,  barley,  and 
straw.     Barley  meal,  bran,  carrots,  parsnips,  green  fodder, 


FRAXCE.  263 

linseed,  etc.,  are  obtained  as  substitutes  for  savings  on  tlie 
regular  ration.  Temporarily,  in  France,  the  practice  now  is 
to  substitute  2.2  pounds  of  barley  for  an  equal  weight  of  oats 
in  the  daily  ration.  In  Algeria,  barley  is  usually  fed  instead 
of  oats. 

Certain  army  corps  are  now  experimenting  with  a  ration 
which  with  straw  serves  as  a  food  component  and  increases 
the  hay  and  oats  allowance.  The  weight  of  oats  is  carried  to 
10. -t  and  13  pounds  according  to  the  arm;  that  of  hay  to  6.6 
and  8.8  pounds  according  to  the  arm.  An  allowance  of  3 
cents  a  day  per  horse  is  paid.  With  this  the  captains  may 
buy  turf,  gorse,  lieather,  sawdust,  fern,  etc.,  for  bedding. 
Formerly  straw  alone  was  used  as  bedding. 

The  straw  for  all  purposes  is  chiefly  wheat  straw,  that  of 
rye,  oats,  and  barley  being  less  frequently  distributed.  No 
special  straw  is  selected  for  feed,  all  coming  from  the  same 
loft. 

Both  spring  and  winter  oats  are  fed ;  good  oats  are  gray, 
white,  or  black,  clean,  smooth  to  feel,  without  odor  and 
weighing  from  55  to  TO  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

During  one  month,  generally  from  May  15  to  June  15,  the 
majority  of  horses  are  fed  green  forage,  about  22  pounds  a 
day.  For  convalescents  and  other  special  cases,  this  green 
forage  may  be  raised  to  88  pounds  a  day.  The  only  com- 
pressed forage  used  is  hay.  This  is  considered  to  assure  the 
preservation  of  the  hay  (if  perfectly  dry  when  pressed)  for 
two  or  two  and  one-half  years.  The  pressed  bales  weigh  from 
110  to  130  pounds  each.  The  results  obtained  from  use  of 
compressed  hay  have  been  uniformly  excellent. 

GROOMING. 

In  winter  horses  are  groomed  twice  a  day,  once  between 
8.30  and  10  a  m.,  and  again  about  3  p.  m. 

The  squadron  commander  regulates  the  method  of  feeding 
his  horses,  but  as  a  rule  hay  is  fed  at  reveille,  one-half  the 
day's  ration  of  oats  about  10  a.  m.  along  with  hay  and  straw, 
and  the  rest  of  the  day's  ration  of  oats,  hay,  and  straw  about 
4  p.  m. 

FARRIERS. 

In  each  squadron  of  cavalry  (which  is  about  the  strength 
of  a  United  States  troop  of  cavalry)  there  are  one  farrier  and 
two  assistant  farriers.     All  farriers  are  men  who  have  served 


264  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

their  three  obligatory  years  and  have  voluntarily  reenlisted. 
Promising  assistant  farriers  are  selected,  one  from  each  bri- 
gade, and  sent  to  the  farriers'  school  at  Saumur,  where  they 
undergo  a  thorough  course  in  their  trade,  and  upon  passing  an 
examination  receive  a  brevet  which  quickly  promotes  them 
to  farrier  and  chief  farrier.  Only  men  who  agree  to  reenlist 
are  accorded  this  privilege.  Farriers  are  given  competitive 
examinations  for  the  grade  of  chief  farrier. 

The  farrier  receives,  besides  the  pay  and  allowances  of  his 
grade  (private,  corporal,  or  sergeant),  an  additional  pay  reg- 
ulated by  the  number  of  horses  he  keeps  shod.  This  amounts 
generally  to  5  cents  per  month  per  horse  unshod,  16  cents  per 
horse  shod  in  front,  and  33  cents  per  horse  shod  all  around. 
He  is  required  to  renew  each  horse's  shoes  once  a  month.  He 
must  keep  at  all  times  an  extra  set  of  shoes,  carefully  fitted, 
for  each  horse  under  his  care,  and  labeled  with  the  horse's 
name  and  number.  This  is  in  addition  to  the  reserve  shoes 
kept  on  hand  in  the  "mobilization  stores."  The  farrier  is 
required  also  to  renew  on  the  forehoofs,  whenever  necessary, 
the  branding  of  the  horse's  number  and  the  letter  of  the 
organization.  The  farrier  has  many  privileges,  such  as  liv- 
ing at  the  canteen,  sleeping  out  of  barracks,  etc.  His  wife  is 
given  preference  as  cantiniere. 

SHOEING. 

In  the  army  the  adjustment  of  the  shoe  is  either  a  la  fran- 
gaise  or  a  I'anglaise,  generally  the  former.  In  the  former 
the  upper  surface  of  the  shoe  is  made  slightly  concave,  the 
lower  or  wearing  surface  is  made  convex,  and  there  is  no 
beveling  of  this  face.  The  incurving  is  greatest  at  the  toe, 
diminishes  to  nothing  at  the  quarter,  and  from  there  on  to 
the  heel  the  shoe  is  flat.  No  channel  is  cut  on  the  lower 
surface  for  the  nail  heads,  but  each  head  is  countersunk. 

The  front  shoes  are  of  uniform  width  from  toe  to  quarter; 
the  hind  shoes  are  appreciably  wider  at  the  toe  than  at  the 
heel.  Nail  holes  are  evenly  spaced ;  hind  shoes  have  no  nails 
at  the  toe;  generally,  eight  nails  for  front  and  hind,  some- 
times six. 

In  the  adjustment  a  I'anglaise,  the  exterior  circumference 
of  the  uppei"  surface  of  the  shoe,  where  the  horn  bears,  is 
flat;  the  part  where  the  sole  bears  is  beveled  off.  The  lower 
or  wearing  surface  is  flat,  and  the  nail  holes  are  made  in  a 


FRANCE. 


!G5 


deep  channel,  the  nail  heads,  when  the  shoe  is  on,  being  flush 
with  the  surface.  In  other  words,  the  method  is  that  com- 
monly in  use  in  America. 

It  generally  takes  two  men  to  shoe  a  horse  in  France,  one 
to  hold  up  the  foot  and  the  other  to  do  the  shoeing.  In  the 
army  this  assistant  is  prescribed  for  the  farrier,  though  in 


Front. 


Hind. 
Fig.  1. — French  shoeing. 


Feet  correctly  shod. 


the  shoeing  a  I'anglaise  the  farrier  is  supposed  to  work  alone, 
as  is  our  custom;  this,  however,  he  rarely  does.  The  hoof  is 
prepared  for  shoeing  about  as  is  customary  in  our  army, 
cutting  away  the  sole  and  trimming  the  frog  being  prohibited. 
The  frog  is,  however,  cleaned  and  loose  parts  removed ;  it  is 
even  prescribed  that  its  point  shall  be  brought  to  the  center 
of  the  sole  and  superfluous  parts  of  the  bars  removed.  After 
the  shoe  has  been  accurately  formed  to  fit  the  prepared  hoof, 
it  is  set  on  hot  and  held  firmly  till  the  hoof  is  evenly  burned 
on  its  whole  bearing  surface.  The  shoe  is  then  removed, 
quenched,  reset,  nailed,  and  clinched. 


Front. 


Hind. 


Fig.  2. — Shoeing  a  I'anglaite. 


Most  shoes  are  now  machine  made.  Orders  regulate  the 
dimensions  of  the  shoes  for  the  various  units. 

Rough  Shoeing. — In  winter,  horses  may  be  shod  with  shoes 
having  holes  for  the  reception  of  ice  calks ;  permanent  rough 
shoeing  is  almost  never  practiced.  The  calks  are  provided 
for  the  heels  only,  or  two  for  the  heels  and  two  at  each  side 
of  the  toe.  The  calks  are  of  steel,  square  in  cross  section, 
about  i  inch  high  and  screw  into  place. 


266  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

VACCINATION. 

Vaccination  is  practiced  for  two  diseases  only,  viz,  anthrax 
and  tetanus  (lockjaw).  The  first  is  so  rarely  observed  in  the 
army  that  veterinary  statistics  hardly  ever  mention  it,  and 
vaccination  for  it  is  therefore  rarely  employed.  AVhen  it  is, 
the  spring  is  the  most  favorable  time,  as  vaccination  then 
gives  immunity  during  the  summer,  at  which  season  the 
anthrax  is  most  likely  to  appear. 

Against  tetanus,  as  a  measure  of  prevention,  vaccination 
is  regularly  recommended  to  army  veterinarians  and  is  con- 
stantly practiced  in  cases  of  wounds,  etc.,  in  parts  of  the 
animal's  body  which  experience  has  shown  to  lead  to  lock- 
jaw, the  most  frequent  causes  being  castration  and  nail 
in  the  hoof.  The  serum  employed  comes  directly  from  the 
Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris.  Before  using  the  serum,  the 
veterinarian  should  assure  himself  of  its  perfect  clearness; 
he  then  makes  two  subcutaneous  injections  of  10  cubic  cen- 
timeters each  on  the  neck  or  behind  the  shoulder  of  the  animal. 
The  first  injection  is  made  at  the  moment  the  operation  is 
performed,  or  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  traumatic  condition 
is  observed.  A  second  injection  is  made  8  or  10  days  later. 
The  veterinarian  should  not,  because  he  has  used  the  pre- 
ventive serum,  neglect  also  to  treat  the  wounds  aseptically 
till  cured. 

The  results  obtained  with  this  tetanus  serum  in  France  have 
been  very  satisfactory  theoretically  and  practically ;  the  dis- 
ease has  become  more  and  more  rare,  and  some  military  instal- 
lations which  had  grown  to  be  considered  as  veritable  tetanus 
breeders  have  been  entirely  cleaned  of  the  disease. 

There  is  also  employed  more  and  more  each  day  in  the  army 
a  therapeutic  anti-tetanus  serum,  but  while  the  results  have 
thus  far  been  encouraging,  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  say  to  what 
extent  they  have  been  due  to  the  serum  and  to  what  extent  to 
the  therapeutic  treatment  concurrently  employed. 

While  these  are  the  only  vaccinations  employed  in  the  vet- 
erinary practice  of  the  army,  it  may  be  added,  as  a  matter  of 
interest,  that  in  France  they  now  begin  to  employ  an  "anti- 
streptococique"  serum  in  affections  of  dropsy  and  erysipelas; 
this,  however,  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  therapeutic  method  and 
not  vaccination. 


FRANCE. 


2GT 


MOBILIZATION    EFFECTIVE. 

The  nninber  of  horses,  in  addition  to  the  peace  effective, 
■which  woukl  be  required  upon  mobilization  of  the  army  is 
sui:)posed  to  be  kept  secret.  This  number  can  be  roughly  es- 
timated from  the  number  of  army  corps  to  be  mobilized  and 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  peace  effective  in  horses.  How- 
ever, in  a  discussion  on  the  budget  a  few  years  ago  (1897)  in 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  the  following  table  was  officially 
furnished  as  setting  forth  the  needs  of  the  war  effective : 


Peace 

effective. 

War 

effective. 

Additional 
horses  re- 
quired in 
war. 

55, 695 

30,  260 

4,500 

4, 120 

87, 360 
250,  260 
100,000 
140, 000 

31  665 

220  000 

95  500 

Traiu..       .       .               .         .              __           _               .             . 

1G5, 880 

Total 

94, 575 

577,620 

483  045 

These  figures  being  for  France  proper,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  peace  effective  given  is  about  15  per  cent  less  than  the 
peace  effective  for  1902.  We  may  then  say  that  to  put  her 
army  on  a  war  footing  for  a  great  continental  war,  France 
would  need  at  the  start  at  least  500,000  more  horses  than  are 
now  in  service,  not  taking  later  needs  into  account. 

These  horses  would  undoubtedly  be  procured  by  requisition, 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  census  of  animals  fit  for  the 
va^rious  military  requirements  is  taken  each  year  in  France. 
This  document  contains  all  the  data  required  by  the  war  de- 
partment for  requisitioning  horses,  should  the  need  arise.  It 
is  not  believed  that  the  necessary  number  and  quality  would 
be  forthcoming  from  home  sources. 

Experiments  have  been  made  at  different  times  to  test  the 
possibility  of  mounting  regiments  of  reserve  cavalry  as  the 
law  contemplates  they  should  be  mounted  upon  mobilization, 
that  is,  by  requisition.  The  results,  even  in  horse-raising  dis- 
tricts, have  not  been  satisfactory ;  in  two  weeks'  time  sufficient 
numbers  of  cavalry  animals  were  not  found  in  the  territories 
assigned  to  the  regiments  to  mount  their  men.  About  one- 
fourth  the  horses  taken  were  light-draft  and  not  saddle  horses. 

Now  of  the  500,000  horses  needed  immediately  upon  mobil- 
ization, about  one-half  are  saddle  horses  for  the  artillery  and 


268  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

cavalry.  The  draft  liorses  could  easily  be  gotten,  but  the 
saddle  horses  continue  to  present  a  serious  difficulty.  The 
general  horse-raising  business  has  been  on  a  steady  decline 
for  the  last. fifteen  years.  In  1888  the  exports  exceeded  the 
imports  by  about  25,000  head;  in  1895  the  imports  exceeded 
the  exports  by  about  15,000  head  and  they  have  not  since 
decreased. 

The  raising  of  saddle  horses  as  distinguished  from  draft 
horses  has  been  in  former  years  and  is  even  now  considered 
more  remunerative  by  breeders ;  the  result  is  that  the  remount 
officers,  notwithstanding  the  high  prices  allowed  for  saddle 
animals,  have  some  difficulty  in  finding  the  15,000  annually 
required  (most  of  these  are  saddle  horses). 

Premiums  to  Breeders  of  Military  Horses  in 
France. — It  was  an  endeavor  to  rectify  this  situation  that 
the  French  chambers  in  1897  passed  a  law  which  puts  in  the 
army  appropriations  each  year  an  item  of  $234,000,  which  is 
used  to  encourage  horse  raisers  in  the  production  of  military 
saddle  horses.  This  sum  enables  the  remount  service  to  pay  a 
higher  price  than  heretofore,  the  increase  being  in  the  nature 
of  a  premium  to  the  producers  of  good  military  animals 
raised  in  France,  and  especially  to  the  small  farmers  who  can 
not  compete  with  great  ranchers.  This  premium  is  in  addi- 
tion to  the  average  price  allowed  for  each  class  of  animal. 

As  a  safeguard  thrown  around  this  increased  expenditure 
for  horses,  the  ministry  of  war  has  given  strict  orders  that 
the  purchasing  boards  shall  demand  from  the  horse  raisers 
certificates  showing  ages  and  pedigrees  of  the  animals  they 
sell.  Prospective  sellers  must  send  to  the  remount  stations 
at  least  ten  days  before  the  purchasing  boards  start  out 
descriptions  of  the  animals  they  propose  to  present,  stating 
pedigree,  etc.  This  arrangement  also  serves  to  prevent  the 
presentation  of  foreign-bred — especially  American — horses  by 
French  breeders  along  with  those  of  their  own  raising.  The 
object  of  the  premium  is  to  encourage  French  breeders,  so 
that  premiums  are  not  paid  on  any  foreign-bred  horse,  what- 
ever his  quality. 

The  average  price  paid  previous  to  1897  for  a  y6ung,  serv- 
iceable, cavalry  horse,  either  for  the  heavy  cavalry  or  the 
light,  was  about  $204.75.  It  is  contended  by  the  horse  raisers 
that  this  price  is  insufficient,  even  for  a  horse  3^  years  old. 
They  contend  that  a  mare  is  worth  $156,  and  that,  allowing 


FRANCE.  269 

that  she  may  produce  eight  colts,  which  is  a  heavy  average, 
$19.50  should  be  added  to  the  value  of  each  colt  when  sold. 
Then  comes  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  mare  during 
gestation,  Avhich  is  never  less  than  $48.75,  and  the  cost  of 
each  colt  during  the  three  years  that  he  is  being  maintained 
by  the  raiser  is  at  least  $39  per  year,  so  that  the  raiser  can 
not  sell  his  3-year-old  colt  for  less  than  $185.25  without  incur- 
ring loss. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  horse-raising  interest  presents  annu- 
ally 120,000  horses  to  the  remount  purchasing  boards,  although 
only  about  16,000  are  accepted. 

Premium  for  Encouraging  Horse  Raising  in  Algeria. 
Each  year  the  appropriation  bill  for  the  army  contains  an 
item  of  varying  amount  for  this  purpose;  in  1901  it  was 
37,680  francs;  in  1902,  74,780  francs.  For  1902  there  is  also 
an  item  of  30,300  francs  for  prizes  for  military  horse  races  in 
Algeria.  (There  is  regularly  voted  3,000  francs  for  prizes 
for  military  horse  races  in  France.)  The  sum  for  Algeria 
was  obtained  from  savings  due  to  the  jDresent  low  price  of 
mules  in  Algeria. 

The  funds  for  premiums  to  breeders  is  divided  among  the 
various  districts  of  Algeria  in  proportion  to  their  importance 
in  the  matter  of  horse  raising.  In  each  district  a  commission 
is  appointed  consisting  of  two  oflBcers,  a  veterinarian,  and  two 
civilians  (one  European  and  one  native),  which  awards  the 
premiums.  The  premiums  are  in  sums  of  150,  100,  and  50 
francs,  and  are  awarded  to  colts  and  fillies  of  2  and  3  years 
and  brood  mares  in  foal  or  shown  with  their  get  of  that  year, 
the  sires  to  be  stallions  belonging  to  the  state  or  Arab,  Bar- 
bary,  or  Arab-Barbary  stallions  approved  by  the  state.  Mares 
receive  one-half  the  sum  allotted  to  the  district,  colts  and 
fillies  the  other  half. 

Owners  must  establish  the  pedigrees  of  the  animals  and 
prove  that  they  have  owned  them  at  least  three  months. 


t 


I 


VI.-GEEMANY. 

[Reported  by  Lieut.  Col.  J.  B.  Keir,  Ninth  Cavalry,  Cuited  States  Jlilitary  .\tt(iclie  at  Berliu.] 


The  production  and  improvement  of  horses  for  the  German 
army  have  been  for  a  long  time  the  object  of  active  vigilance, 
and  the  results  obtained  have  been  most  satisfactory.  The 
Germans  have  encouraged  and  developed  the  propagation  of 
military  horses  until  they  now  have  better-bred  mounts  than 
those  of  any  other  European  army.  Aside  from  the  private 
breeding  stables,  they  have  organized  government  breeding 
establishments,  where  are  kept  both  stallions  and  mares,  and 
stallion  depots,  in  each  of  which  are  kept  from  80  to  120 
stallions  which  are  distributed  among  the  stallion  stations 
during  the  covering  season,  .from  January  until  May. 

Horses  from  3  to  4  years  of  age  are  purchased  for  the  army 
by  remount  commissions.  The  horses  are  then  assembled  in 
remount  depots.  These  depots  are  also  agricultural  establish- 
ments on  large  scales,  are  under  the  direction  of  the  military, 
and  grow  the  necessary  forage  and  other  products  for  their 
own  use.  Horses  are  sent  from  the  depots  to  the  regiments 
and  other  organizations  when  between  4  and  5  years  of  age. 
The  only  ones  not  sent  to  the  depots  are  some  older  heavy 
draft  horses  purchased  for  the  artillery  and  the  train,  which 
go  immediately  to  their  organizations ;  this  is  permitted  for 
only  a  limited  number  of  horses  namely,  those  that  are  bought 
from  4  to  6  years  of  age  and  at  an  average  price  of  $301. 

There  are  25  remount  depots,  of  which  17  are  in  Prussia,  5 
in  Bavaria,  2  in  Saxony,  and  1  in  Wurttemberg.  They  are 
distributed  over  the  Empire,  in  the  principal  horse-raising 
centers.  The  total  annual  receipts  of  the  17  depots  in  Prussia 
are  about  $289,500,  the  expenses  about  $772,000;  the  differ- 
ence $482,500  is  appropriated  for  in  the  budget.  This  raises 
the  average  cost  of  a  horse  to  an  amount  between  $173.90  and 
$227.74.  Bavaria  maintains  in  its  remount  depots  about 
1,200  horses.  In  Saxony  the  remount  depots  of  Kulkruth  and 
Skassa  contain  together  about  700  horses,  but  these  two  depots 

cm) 


2? 2  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

have  four  annexes  Avhicli  contain  400  more.  Horses  for  the 
Saxon  army  are  j)urchasecl  to  a  great  extent  in  East  Prussia 
arid  Hanover  at  an  average  price  of  $214.20  each. 

The  remount  depot  for  Wurttemberg  was  established  in 
1897 ;  before  this  date  its  horses  were  bought  in  the  market, 
generally  in  Prussia.  The  depot  of  Breitholen  can  not  fur- 
nish all  the  horses  necessary  for  the  army  of  Wurttemberg ; 
some  direct  purchases  are  therefore  still  made,  and  arrange- 
ments are  made  also  for  obtaining  horses  from  the  remount 
depots  of  Prussia. 

The  province  of  East  Prussia  is  celebrated  for  its  fine 
horses,  and  furnishes  nearly  half  the  horses  for  the  Prussian 
army.  In  all  the  depots  the  horses  are  kept  in  stables,  and 
have  stalls,  but  are  not  tied  up,  being  left  free  to  walk  around. 
A  tin  tag  bearing  a  number  is  hung  on  the  neck  of  each  horse. 
By  this  number  the  animal  is  known  until  the  end  of  his  mil- 
itary service.  The  numbers  differ  in  the  various  depots,  so 
that  it  can  be  immediately  determined  from  which  establish- 
^nent  a  horse  comes,  also  by  whom  he  was  purchased.  The 
horses  distributed  to  the  light  cavalrj"  (hussars  and  dragoons) 
must  be  from  15  hands  2  inches  to  16  hands  in  height,  and 
for  heavy  cavalry  (uhlans  and  cuirassiers)  from  16  to  IT 
hands.  The  horses  of  East  Prussia  are  regarded  as  the  best 
horses  in  Germany. 

The  purchasing  commissions  for  the  remount  horses  consist 
each  of  one  permanent  president  and  two  oflQcers  of  cavalry 
or  field  artillery  detailed  each  year.  Each  commission  has 
also  one  veterinarian,  one  secretary,  and  one  or  two  orderlies. 
Each  commission  operates  in  a  designated  district.  This 
plan  enables  the  members  to  become  well  acquainted  with 
the  character  of  the  animals  within  their  zone  of  action.  The 
commissions  are  in  session  only  during  the  time  necessary  for 
the  purchases.  They  are  convened  during  the  month  of  May 
and  adjourn  by  the  15th  of  September.  The  president  is  the 
only  permanent  member.  During  the  winter  the  presidents 
work  at  the  office  of  the  minister  of  war.  The  other  mem- 
bers are  detailed  annually  from  among  officers  having  special 
knowledge  of  the  horse,  and  who  show  promise  of  becoming 
qualified  to  act  as  presidents  of  commissions.  After  the  pur- 
chases have  been  made,  these  officers  return  to  their  organi- 
zations. The  commissions  publish  in  the  newspapers  the 
dates   on  which   they  will  hold  what   is   called   here  "the 


GERMANY.  273 

remount  markets,"  and  on  these  dates  they  make  the  pur- 
chases. The  remount  commissions  purchase  only  serviceable 
and  healthy  remounts.  No  standard  of  weight  is  prescribed, 
no  training  demanded.  The  sellers  must  furnish  foal  certifi- 
cates. Cold-blooded  horses  are  not  accepted.  The  horses 
must  be  from  15  to  17  hands  in  height.  They  may  be  either 
geldings  or  mares. 

The  horses  are  rounded  up  in  bunches,  placed  in  charge  of 
detachments  furnished  by  neighboring  regiments  of  cavalry, 
and  taken  to  the  nearest  remount  depot.  A  few  of  the  horses 
are  kept  at  the  depots  for  as  long  as  two  years  each.  The 
president  of  the  commission  determines  definitely  whether  an 
animal  is  suitable  for  purchase ;  the  ranking  lieutenant  alone 
discusses  with  the  owner  of  the  horse  the  conditions  of  bar- 
gain and  the  price,  and  the  junior  lieutenant  takes  the  meas- 
urements. 

The  distribution  of  the  horses  to  the  different  arms  is  made 
by  the  inspector  general  of  remounts,  who  visits  the  depots 
for  this  purpose.  The  regiments  send  detachments  to  the 
depots  for  the  horses,  which  are  transported  to  their  regiments 
by  rail,  except  where  the  distance  is  short.  The  distribution 
is  now  made  in  July.  As  the  discharges  of  horses  unfit  for 
service  are  made  from  the  various  organizations  after  the  fall 
maneuvers,  the  numbers  of  horses  on  hand  are  therefore  for 
some  time  above  the  regulation  allowances.  The  regiments, 
in  consequence,  are  authorized  to  sell  20  horses  each  immedi- 
ately after  the  arrival  of  the  remounts.  A  regiment  of  cavalry 
receives  annually  63  horses;  each  squadron  from  12  to  13. 
There  is  supplied  in  addition  the  necessary  number  of  ofiicers' 
horses,  known  as  officers'  chargers.  All  lieutenants,  and  cap- 
tains of  the  second  class  (captains  drawing  first  lieutenants' 
pay),  of  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  are  entitled  to  one  govern- 
ment horse  each.  Each  of  these  officers  must  also  procure 
and  keep  one  additional  mount.  The  service  horse  is  deliv- 
ered only  after  complete  training,  as  it  is  not  considered  desir- 
able for  the  officer  to  spend  his  time  at  the  work  necessary 
for  the  training.  At  the  end  of  four  years  the  charger  becomes 
the  property  of  the  holder.  The  officer  who  does  not  take 
advantage  of  his  right  thus  to  select  a  horse,  receives  in  its 
stead  the  average  price  of  a  remount  horse,  paid  in  five  annui- 
ties. An  officer  thus  waiving  his  right  to  a  government 
charger  is  obliged   to   keep  two   horses  of  his   own.     The 


274  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

inspector  of  remounts,  in  making  the  distribution  of  the 
horses  at  the  depots,  places  the  best  mounts  in  the  category 
of  officers'  horses  ("chargers").  This  designation,  however, 
does  not  restrict  the  choice  of  the  officer,  who  may  select  from 
all  the  remount  horses  through  the  intermediary  of  a  commis- 
sion to  approve  the  preference.  If  the  horse  assigned  to  an 
ofiicer  does  not,  in  the  first  year  of  possession,  answer  the 
requirements  of  the  service,  it  may,  upon  the  recommendation 
of  the  commission,  if  sound  and  healthy,  be  exchanged  for 
another,  generally  of  the  same  remount.  As  a  rule  such  an 
exchange  is  permitted  only  once.  The  regimental  commander 
may,  for  very  particular  reasons,  authorize  a  second  exchange. 
With  the  exception  of  captains  of  the  second  class  and  lieu- 
tenants of  cavalry  and  horse  artillery,  all  mounted  officers 
receive  a  special  allowance  with  which  they  purchase  horses 
in  the  markets. 

The  remount  depots  are  all  conducted  in  a  similar  manner. 
A  description  of  a  few  will  be  given.  The  depot  of  Preussisch- 
Mark  is  situated  in  the  province  of  East  Prussia.  It  has  an 
area  of  2,037  acres ;  the  stables  have  a  capacity  for  330  horses. 
The  average  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  a  horse  at  this  depot 
for  one  year  is  $57.12.  The  cultivation  of  the  land  furnishes 
the  depot  forage,  oats,  and  hay,  and  also  other  grain,  which  is 
sold.  Cattle,  donkeys,  mules,  etc.,  are  also  sold.  In  1897  the 
sales  amounted  to  $22,230.  The  extra  costs  are  compensated 
for  by  the  increase  in  value  of  the  animals  during  their  stay. 
The  stables  consist  of  two  buildings  adjoining,  having  in 
front  a  common  yard.  Hayracks  are  not  used,  although  they 
exist  in  all  the  stables.  The  hay  and  straw  are  placed  on 
the  ground.  The  hayracks  are  believed  to  tire  the  loins  of 
the  horse  when  he  raises  his  head.  The  price  paid  for  3-year- 
olds  varies;  it  now  averages  $155.89.  The  average  cost  of 
maintenance  being  $57.12,  the  l^-year-old  costs  the  govern- 
ment $213.01.  In  other  depots  the  annual  expense  of  mainte- 
nance is  less,  so  that  the  average  cost  of  one  of  their  horses 
up  to  the  time  of  his  arrival  in  a  cavalry  regiment  is  reduced 
to  $207.28. 

The  inspector  general  of  the  remount  service  designates  the 
horses  for  the  different  organizations  in  the  month  of  June; 
detachments  are  then  sent  by  the  organizaticms  for  them.  To 
care  for  330  horses  at  the  depot  twelve  stablemen  with  an 
overseer  and  stable  chief  are  employed ;  each  man  cares  for 


I 


GERMANY.  275 

about  30  horses.  None  of  these  employees  belong  to  the 
army,  but  all  are  ex-soldiers.  To  this  personnel  are  added 
an  accountant,  a  veterinarian,  and  a  director  of  the  establish- 
ment. The  horses  are  not  ridden  while  at  the  depot.  By 
purchasing  3-year-olds,  advantage  is  taken  of  the  market, 
which  finds  no  other  call  for  horses  of  this  age.  The  govern- 
ment has  thereby  a  wide  choice,  and  the  horses  are  thus  fed 
grain  a  year  sooner.  The  horses  also  have  the  advantage  of 
not  having  been  worked  and  thus  spoiled  for  cavalry  pur- 
poses. Against  this  system  are  the  expenses  of  maintenance, 
of  the  land,  buildings,  etc.  Most  of  the  depots  were  founded, 
however,  at  a  period  when  land  was  not  so  valuable  as  it  is 
now.  The  state  then  possessed  large  tracts  and  was  able  to 
choose,  for  the  installation  of  the  depots,  very  favorable  sites 
from  its  own  possessions.  The  number  of  horses  at  any  depot 
is  regulated  by  the  area  under  cultivation. 

The  remount  dej^ot  at  Kattenau,  in  East  Prussia,  has  a  do- 
main of  2,516  acres.  It  contains  a  central  establishment  and 
three  branches.  There  are  600  horses  attached  to  this  depot. 
A  very  large  amount  of  green  forage  is  used.  In  fact  the 
grazing  at  all  the  depots  is  much  more  restricted  than  for- 
merly, the  feeding  of  green  forage  having  taken  its  place.  A 
special  isolated  place,  divided  into  box  stalls,  is  set  apart  for 
the  hospital.  The  ration  of  forage  is  fed  on  the  ground  in 
small  jDortions,  the  grain  being  put  in  a  box  fastened  to  the 
wall.  All  the  horses  are  unshod.  The  feet  are  carefully 
watched  by  the  veterinarian.  The  farrier  also  goes  over  and 
fixes  them  every  month.  There  is  a  list  made  of  the  horses 
in  each  stable.  This  list  contains  the  number,  description, 
and  the  arm  to  which  each  animal  is  assigned.  The  soil  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  stables  is  sandy  and  dry.  The  horses  are 
very  gentle.  The  average  daily  ration  is  7^  pounds  oats,  12i 
pounds  hay,  and  15  pounds  straw.  In  the  summer  the  feed 
consists  for  the  most  part  of  green  forage.  Pasturing  is 
almost  abandoned  at  this  depot.  The  cost  price  of  the  stay 
of  a  horse  for  a  year  at  Kattenau  is  about  $68.40. 

The  remount  depot  of  Baerenklau  has  a  central  establish- 
ment and  five  branches,  with  a  capacity  for  500  horses.  Its 
management  is  similar  to  that  of  Kattenau.  Soon  after  the 
arrival  of  the  horses  at  the  depots  they  are  almost  invariably 
sick  with  influenza. 


276  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

While  at  the  depots,  the  young  horses  are  systematically 
exercised  in  so-called  ' '  movement  grounds, "  inclosed  grounds, 

21  to  26  yards  wide,  and  from  825  to  1,250  yards  long,  and 
oval  in  shape.  They  are  daily  for  two  hours  driven  on  these 
grounds  in  bunches  of  100  head  each,  at  moderate  paces  (slow 
trot  and  gallop )  with  front  and  rear  herders.  They  thus  obtain 
free  step,  develop  muscle,  good  hoofs,  and  healthy  internal 
organs,  and  acquire  a  certain  discipline. 

Immediately  after  purchase  the  horses  are  branded  on  the 
left  side  of  the  neck  with  the  year.  After  the  transfer  of 
the  horses  from  the  remount  depots  to  the  regiments,  they  are 
branded  on  the  left  hip  with  the  regimental  brand,  from 
which,  in  an  abbreviated  form,  the  regiment  to  which  they 
belong  may  be  seen:  D4,  U6,  A3,  etc.  The  brands,  how- 
ever, are  not  placed  over  others,  such  as  those  of  breeding 
stables,  etc. 

In  the  army  the  average  length  of  service  of  horses  of  the 
cavalry  and  train  is  ten  years,  of  field  artillery  nine  years, 
and  of  the  military  riding  institute  from  seven  to  eight  years. 

There  is  no  regulation  fixing  the  length  of  time  that  a  horse 
may  serve  in  the  army.  A  great  number  of  them  are  dis- 
charged between  14  and  15  years  of  age.  This  matter  is  left 
entirely  with  the  squadron  commander,  who  may  allow  them 
to  stay  in  the  service  up  to  the  age  of  20  years.  In  a  few  of 
the  organizations  particular  horses  are  allowed  to  stay  until 

22  years  of  age,  which  is  the  extreme  limit.  The  number  of 
animals  to  be  annually  received  in  each  organization  is  fixed, 
varying  only  in  consequence  of  more  or  fewer  horses  being 
selected  for  officers'  chargers.  As  a  result  a  squadron  com- 
mander having  received  his  allowance  (which  is  10  per  cent 
of  his  authorized  strength),  say  13  horses,  in  July,  will  not 
have  more  than  13  altogether  sold  and  discharged  after  the 
fall  maneuvers,  although  he  may  have  more  in  his  squadron 
that  should  be  discharged.  For  instance,  if  a  horse  dies  he 
is  not  replaced,  but  the  squadron  commander,  in  order  to 
keep  the  number  at  the  authorized  limit,  discharges  one  horse 
less.  If  a  captain  is  compelled  to  condemn  more  horses  than 
he  has  received  from  the  remount,  the  deficit  continues  dur- 
ing the  year,  and  the  number  of  the  effective  files  of  the 
squadron  for  the  time  being  is  reduced.  If  a  horse  becomes 
unfit  for  service,  and  the  squadron  commander  judges  it 
impossible  to  keep  him  in  the  ranks,  he  reports  the  fact  to 


GERMANY.  277 

the  regimental  commander,  wlio  convenes  a  board,  composed 
of  a  captain,  two  lieutenants,  and  a  veterinary  surgeon,  to 
examine  the  horse.  The  decision  of  the  board  as  to  the  dis- 
position to  be  made  of  the  horse  is  final,  its  findings  being 
subject  to  no  approval  by  superior  authority  and  to  no  appeal. 
If  the  horse  is  declared  unfit  for  the  service  he  is  immediately 
sold  at  auction.  (It  may  be  worthy  of  remark  that  the  tend- 
ency in  the  German  army  is  to  the  decentralization  of  power 
in  the  hands  of  the  war  ministry.  Initiative  and  authority 
is  being  extended  to  and  centralized  in  the  ofiBcers  present  on 
the  spot,  who  are  held  responsible  for  their  actions.  This 
relieves  the  war  ministry  and  heads  of  dej^artments  of  many 
details  of  which  they  can  have  only  a  paper  knowledge.) 

The  money  received  for  the  sale  of  the  horse  is  taken  up  in 
the  special  fund  which  exists  in  all  squadrons,  batteries  of 
field  artillery,  and  divisions  of  the  train,  for  the  improvement 
of  the  horses.  This  fund  accrues  not  only  from  the  proceeds 
of  such  sales,  but  also  from  the  sales  of  the  forage  rations 
which  are  authorized  to  be  drawn  for  the  animal  after  he  has 
been  sold  and  until  he  has  been  replaced,  and  also  from  pay- 
ments made  by  the  one-year  volunteers  for  the  hire  of  the 
horses  used  by  them.  The  commanders  of  the  organizations 
purchase  from  this  fund,  in  the  open  market,  a  horse  to  re- 
place the  one  sold.  The  number  of  horses  thus  bought  is  very 
limited. 

There  are,  in  round  numbers,  4,200,000  horses  in  Germany. 
The  number  in  the  army  is  as  follows :  In  the  cavalry,  65,700; 
in  the  artillery,  33,750;  in  the  other  branches,  5,270;  draft 
horses,  25,900;  pack  horses,  12;  total,  130,632.  There  are  no 
mules  in  the  army. 

The  number  of  horses  imported  into  Germany  annually 
averages:  From  France,  about  7,000;  from  Russia,  32,000; 
from  Belgium,  21,500;  from  Denmark,  16,000;  from  Austria- 
Hungary,  12,000;  from  Holland,  8,000;  the  total  imports  being 
about  102,000,  while  the  exports  reach  only  about  10,000. 
The  import  duties  on  horses  over  2  years  of  age  are  $4.76 
each;  under  2  years,  61.19;  colts  following  dam,  free;  mules, 
$1.19.     No  export  duties  are  charged  on  horses  or  mules. 

For  use  outside  the  continental  empire,  the  horses  for  the 
expeditionary  corps  in  China  were  the  only  ones  provided  by 
the  army  administration.     No  horses  for  use  of  the  troops  in 


278  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

the  colonies  liave  been  shipped  from  Germany.  The  few 
horses  used  in.  the  colonies  are  native  horses  furnished  by  the 
local  civil  administration.  For  the  East- Asiatic  expedition- 
ary corps  the  horses  were  bought  partly  in  the  United  States 
of  America  and  partly  in  Australia.  For  those  purchased 
in  the  United  States  the  same  conditions  were  required  for 
their  acceptance  as  are  established  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment for  its  remounts. 

The  forage  ration  varies  according  to  the  service  performed 
by  the  horse.  There  is  a  ration  for  garrison  duty,  for  the 
march,  and  for  field  service.  The  heavy  ration  consists  in 
garrison  of  11.16  pounds  oats,  5.58  pounds  hay,  and  7.81 
pounds  straw;  for  the  march,  12.27  pounds  oats,  3.34  pounds 
hay,  and  3.9  pounds  straw;  for  the  field,  12.61  oats,  3.3-4  hay, 
and  3.9  straw.  The  heavy  ration  is  allowed  to  the  horses  of 
the  cuirassier  and  uhlan  regiments,  to  the  horses  of  the  gen- 
erals, general  stajEf,  adjutants  general,  officers  on  duty  at  the 
war  ministry,  artillery  of  the  guard  corps,  regimental  and 
artillery  battalion  commanders,  artillery  and  train  horses 
(when  used  for  draft  purposes),  and,  when  in  the  field,  for 
all  cavalry  and  artillery  horses. 

Besides  the  heavy  ration  there  is  also  a  light-cavalry  (guard), 
a  middle,  and  a  light  ration.  The  light-cavalry  (guard) 
garrison  ration  consists  of  10.6  pounds  oats,  5.58  hay,  and 
7.81  straw;  the  march  ration,  11.5  oats,  3.34  hay,  3.9  straw; 
the  field  ration,  12.61  oats,  3.34  hay,  3.39  straw.  The  light 
garrison  ration  consists  of  9.48  oats,  5.58  hay,  7.81  straw; 
march  ration,  10.6  oats,  3.34  hay,  3.9  straw;  the  field  ration, 
11.16  oats,  3.34  hay,  and  3.9  straw.  The  horses  of  the  light 
cavalry  of  the  guard  are  entitled  to  the  light-cavalry  (guard) 
ration ;  the  horses  of  the  dragoons  and  hussars  of  the  guard 
to  the  middle  ration;  and  the  horses  of  all  other  troops, 
officers,  physicians,  and  officials  to  the  light  ration. 

Additional  allowances  are  authorized  for  certain  prescribed 
cases ;  for  instance,  for  railroad  travel  of  over  eight  hours' 
duration  the  hay  ration  is  increased  by  6  pounds  11  ounces. 
An  increase  is  authorized  also  for  the  heavy  horses  during 
maneuvers. 

The  rations  for  the  officers'  horses  of  the  cavalry  are  the 
same  as  those  for  the  service  horses  of  their  regiments ;  thus 
an  officer  of  the  cuirassiers  receives  the  cuirassier  ration,  an 


GERMANY. 


279 


officer  of  tlie  hussars,  tlie  liussar  ration,  etc.     They  are  en- 
titled to  rations  as  folloTvs : 


I 


Peace  footing. 

War  footing. 

4 
3 
3 
3 

2 

5 

Field  officer                      _  _         .  _       _„.____.- 

4 

Captain  conimaiiiiins  a  scjuadron     _           ..     _       _  _ 

3 

Ke2:iniental  adjutant,  first  or  second  lieutenant               

3 

3 

Surgeon  lieutenant                _ _                              _____ 

1 

Pavnia-<ter, 

1 

1 

Veterinarian     _.                                                     _______ 

1 

The  forage  rations  constitute  a  personal  allowance  of  the 
officers  entitled  to  them,  who  may  dispose  of  the  rations  as 
they  desire.  Instead  of  the  rations  officers  may  draw  money 
either  for  all  the  rations  allowed  for  their  horses  or  for  any 
part  of  the  same. 

In  the  cavalry  the  following  extra  pay  for  the  jiurchase  of 
horses  is  allowed  per  month : 

First  lieutenant -. ._ S3.  57 

Captains  of  the  second  class 7.14 

Captains  of  the  first  class_ 5.95 

Staff  officers  not  regimental  commanders 5.  95 

Regimental  commanders 11.  90 

Officers  of  the  horse  artillery  have  the  same  allowances. 
The  generals  do.  not  receive  any  extra  pay  for  horses.  The 
allowance  of  forage  for  general  officers  is  for  3  to  8  horses  each 
according  to  said  officers'  duties.  In  time  of  peace  they  are 
not  required  to  keep  their  full  number  of  horses,  but  they 
may  draw  and  sell  their  full  allowance  of  the  forage.  Com- 
pressed forage  is  not  used. 

A  squadron  is  allowed  each  month  from  $10.23  to  $10.71 
for  shoeing  its  horses.  On  a  peace  footing  there  are  139 
horses  in  a  squadron,  and  this  monthly  allowance  not  only 
proves  for  them  sufficient,  but  often  is  not  all  expended,  so 
that  a  reserve  fund  is  constituted  to  provide  for  unexpected 
needs.  The  squadron  commanders  are  entirely  free  to  have 
or  not  to  have  the  horses  of  their  squadrons  shod.  It  is  cus- 
tomary not  to  shoe  the  horses  during  the  winter,  that  is,  from 
the  1st  of  October  to  the  1st  of  April.  During  this  period, 
which  is  devoted  to  the  instruction  of  recruits,  the  horses 
work  only  in  the  riding  hall  or  on  the  exercising  grounds, 
which  are  prepared  for  the  purpose  and  are  soft.  They  can 
then,  barring  exceptions  indicated  by  the  veterinary  surgeons, 
go  without  shoes.     During  the  summer  all  depends  upon  the 


280  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

sj)ecial  conditions  in  the  vicinity  of  the  garrisons.  If,  in 
going  to  drill,  the  squadron  is  obliged  to  traverse  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  city,  the  front  feet  are  shod.  If  on  the  con- 
trary the  ground  in  the  neighborhood  is  not  too  hard,  the 
horses  are  left  entirely  unshod  until  the  fall  maneuvers.  For 
these  maneuvers  the  horses  are  shod  all  around,  as  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  foresee  what  kind  of  ground  may  be  encountered. 
But  in  exceptional  cases,  where  it  is  known  that  they  will  be 
used  only  on  soft  ground,  economy  is  preserved  by  shoeing 
only  the  fore  feet.  In  the  cities  the  cavalry  never  furnishes 
mounted  patrols  or  mounted  orderlies.  All  this  service  is 
done  by  soldiers  on  foot.  This  permits  doing  without  shoe- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  year,  thereby  incidentally  saving 
a  part  of  the  fund  allowed  for  shoeing.  There  is,  neverthe- 
less, always  in  the  storehouse  a  large  supply  of  shoes,  enough 
not  only  for  shoeing  the  squadron  horses  all  around,  at  the 
moment  of  mobilization,  but  also  for  a  reserve  supply  to  take 
along. 

Until  recently  no  vaccination  of  any  kind  was  prescribed 
for  military  horses.  In  the  last  few  years,  trials  have  been 
made  to  guard  by  vaccination  against  influenza,  that  is,  to 
protect  the  healthy  horses  by  vaccination  before  the  infec- 
tion. The  vaccine  used  for  this  purpose  consists  of  the  lymph 
of  such  horses  as  have  recovered  from  the  disease.  The  re- 
sults of  these  trials  have  not  been  sufficiently  satisfactory  to 
lead  to  a  general  adoption  of  such  vaccinations. 

During  winter  horses  are  groomed  three  times  a  day. 

When  the  horses  are  brought  from  the  depots  to  their  regi- 
ments and  organizations,  they  are  trained  for  one  year  before 
being  placed  in  the  ranks,  after  which  they  are  trained 
another  year  in  the  ranks  before  their  education  is  regarded 
as  completed. 

When  horses  are  discharged  from  the  cavalry,  they  are  put 
in  the  train,  if  adjudged  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

The  mounted  organizations  of  the  army  have  some  other 
horses  which  are  known  as  "Kriimper"  horses.  These  are 
maintained  in  excess  of  the  regulation  effectives,  and  rations 
may  not  be  drawn  for  them.  They  are  fed  on  the  savings  of 
the  whole.  The  number  of  Kriimper  horses  is  fixed  by  regu- 
lations at  3  or  4  per  squadron,  2  to  5  per  battery  or  train  com- 
pany, 6  at  the  most  for  tlie  officers'  riding  institute,  or  not 
over  4  for  the   noncommissioned   officers'   riding  institute. 


GERMANY.  281 

These  horses  are  used  as  draft  animals  for  the  stable  wagons 
and  in  the  squadron  or  company  fatigue  duty.  They  may  also 
be  hired  out  to  other  organizations  of  the  garrison.  Under 
certain  conditions  they  may  be  driven  also  by  officers  of  the 
regiment  or  organization,  on  payment  of  a  certain  charge, 
which  goes  into  a  special  fund. 

In  case  of  mobilization  the  horses  necessary  to  put  the  army 
on  a  war  effective  are  obtained  by  requisition. 

The  number  of  horses  to  be  added  to  the  peace  effective  in 
case  of  a  general  mobilization  is  380,000.  It  is  expected  that 
these  horses  will  be  procured  in  Germany  upon  mobilization, 
as  they  are  now  ready  and  listed  for  such  service.  The  law 
of  187o  affecting  military  requisitions,  and  the  regulation  of 
1886,  concerning  the  conscription  of  horses,  indicate  in  detail 
the  rules  to  be  followed  in  all  that  concerns  these  operations. 
Concisely  they  are  as  follows :  A  general  census  of  horses  is 
made  every  ten  years  by  the  civil  authority.  This  is  followed 
by  a  classification  made  by  commissions,  each  composed  of  an 
army  officer  and  one  official  of  the  civil  administration.  Dis- 
tricts are  then  assigned  to  the  different  army  corps,  and,  in 
case  of  mobilization,  the  corps  commanders  call  for  the 
required  number  of  animals  of  the  desired  classes.  The  horses 
are  inspected  by  commissions  established  during  time  of  peace 
and  composed  of  3  members  each.  The  work  is  laid  out  in 
such  a  manner  that  each  commission  will  not  have  more  than 
1,200  animals  to  examine.  Upon  the  civil  authority  is  incum- 
bent the  duty  of  assembling  the  horses  and  of  seeing  that  they 
are  collected  at  the  points  wished  at  the  time  indicated  in  the 
order  of  mobilization.  The  horses  selected  by  the  commis- 
sions are  taken  by  the  owners  to  designated  points  where  mili- 
tary receiving  commissions  appraise  the  animals  and  fix  the 
amounts  to  be  allowed  the  owners.  The  horses  are  then  sent 
to  the  organizations  by  men  of  the  recruiting  service  or  men 
of  the  landwehr  or  landsturm,  assembled  for  this  purpose  in 
advance  at  the  different  receiving  points. 

There  are  in  Prussia  three  government  breeding  stables, 
containing  stallions  and  mares.  They  are  the  stables  of 
Trakehnen,  Beberbeck,  and  Graditz.  Their  object  is  to  raise 
blooded  stallions  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  stallion 
depots,  of  which  there  are  15.  The  latter  send  out  their  stal- 
lions to  the  various  stallion  stations  established  throughout 
the  empire  during  the  breeding  seasons.     After  the  breeding 


282  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

season  is  over  each  year  the  stallions  are  brought  back  again 
to  the  stallion  depots. 

The  breeding  stables,  stallion  depots,  and  stations  are  all 
"Under  the  management  of  the  ministry  of  agriculture,  and  are 
in  no  way  connected  with  the  war  ministry  or  the  army. 

The  breeding  stable  of  Trakehnen  was  established  in  1T25. 
It  has  a  domain  of  10,000  acres,  and  comprises  13  farms  where 
stallions,  colts,  and  brood  mares  are  kept.  The  stables  now 
have  15  stallions,  350  mares,  and  730  colts  of  different  ages. 
Among  the  stallions  are  10  first-class  English  thoroughbreds; 
their  average  cost  price  was  817,850.  The  well  known  Tra- 
kehnen breed  of  horses  is  about  one-half  English  blood, 
one-quarter  Arabian,  and  one-quarter  blood  of  the  ancient 
coursers  of  the  Teutonic  order  of  knights  who  raised  with  great 
care  and  success  their  steeds  in  East  Prussia  during  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries.  These  horses  are  suitable 
for  all  the  services,  and  make  remarkable  saddle  horses  and 
carriage  horses.  The  finest  products  go  into  the  emperor's 
stables.  Mares  of  private  persons  are  also  served  at  the  sta- 
bles. The  stables  possessed  two  Arabian  stallions,  but  they 
were  recently  discharged,  as  their  product  lacked  size.  There 
are,  however,  at  the  stables,  four  Arabian  mares,  which  give 
fine  products.  The  few  officers  who  possess  these  horses  men- 
tion them  with  pride.  All  the  stallion  depots  have  a  certain 
number  of  Trakehnen  horses.  At  3  years  of  age  the  stallions 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  principal  stallions,  which  are 
to  serve  in  the  breeding  stables,  and  the  stallions  of  the  coun- 
try, which  are  sent  to  the  stallion  depots. 

The  breeding  stables  of  Graditz  have  an  area  of  7,500  acres. 
They  contain  seven  stallions,  among  which  is  Chamont,  bought 
at  the  price  of  $32,000. 

In  addition  to  the  stallions  raised,  the  government  purchases 
about  200  stallions  each  year. 

The  effectives  of  all  the  government  stables  of  Prussia  are, 
for  the  principal  breeding  stables,  35  stallions,  640  brood  mares, 
and  2,000  colts;  for  the  stallion  depots,  2,250  stallions;  4,925 
animals  in  all.  The  price  charged  for  covering  mares  is  from 
50  cents  at  some  of  the  stations  to  $100  at  some  of  the  breed- 
ing stables.  The  ordinary  price  through  the  country  is  about 
$1.  All  htDrses  have  foal  certificates.  They  are  not  inbred. 
Stallions  are  not  lent  to  civilian  horse  raisers ;  their  services 
are  paid  for. 


GERMANY.  283 

Bavaria  has  1  royal  breeding  stable,  2  principal  breeding 
stables,  5  stallion  depots,  and  123  stallion  stations. 

Saxony  has  1  breeding  establishment  for  the  production  of 
draft  horses ;  it  is  of  limited  extent  and  of  not  much  impor- 
tance. 

Wurttemberg.  has  3  small  breeding  stables,  which  are  also 
stallion  depots.  The  government  stallions  in  Wurttemberg 
number  126. 

The  total  number  of  government  stallions  in  Germany  is 
3,000,  exclusive  of  the  colts. 

SUMMARY     OF     THE     VETERINARY     MEDICAL     REPORT    OF     THE 
PRUSSIAN   ARMY,    1900. 

The  Militar-Wochenblatt  publishes  a  summary  of  the  vet- 
erinary medical  report  of  the  Prussian  army  for  1900.  The 
total  number  of  service  horses  was  81,039,  and  of  these  32,996 
or  40.71  per  cent  came  under  treatment,  with  the  result  that 
30,399  or  92.12  i^er  cent  of  the  treated  horses  were  cured,  320 
were  declared  unfit  for  further  service,  1,1-48  or  3.48  per  cent 
died,  and  368  or  1.11  per  cent  were  killed,  making  a  total  loss 
to  the  service  of  1,836  horses  or  5.58  per  cent  of  the  horses 
treated,  and  2.26  per  cent  of  the  total  strength.  Compared 
with  the  previous  year  there  was  an  increase  of  6,410  in  the 
number  of  cases  treated  and  284  in  the  number  lost.  Deaths 
from  glanders  were  more  numerous  than  in  the  two  years 
immediately  preceding,  the  figures  being  13  in  1898,  1  in 
1899,  and  52  in  1900.  Of  the  52,  47  cases  came  from  one  reg- 
iment, but  in  21  of  these  there  was  some  doubt  as  to  the  real 
nature  of  the  disease.  Chest  murrain  affected  1,618  horses, 
of  which  1,498  were  cured,  70  died,  1  was  killed,  and  49 
remained  under  treatment.  No  less  than  1,019  cases,  with  43 
deaths,  occurred  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  jeav.  The  cases 
were  less  numerous  than  in  either  of  the  four  preceding  years, 
the  numbers  for  these  years  being  2,277,  3,116,  3,265,  and 
2,301.  The  far  less  dangerous  murrain  or  intestinal  fever 
showed  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  cases,  the  figures 
being  4,325  for  1900  and  only  861  for  1899,  but  only  1  horse 
died  from  this  disease  and  1  was  shot.  Colic  was,  as  usual, 
much  more  fatal,  as  out  of  3,746  horses  treated,  528  horses 
died,  both  these  numbers  being  higher  than  those  of  any  of 
the  five  preceding  years.  Inflammation  of  the  throat  and 
larynx  aft'ected  527  horses,  but  only  1  died ;    420  of  the  cases 


284  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

were  infectious  and  284  of  these  came  from  one  regiment. 
The  number  of  cases  treated  for  saddle  and  harness  galls  was 
596,  against  440  in  1899.  The  number  of  cases  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  tendons  also  show  an  increase,  it  being  4,039,  with 
a  loss  of  39  horses.  The  hot-iron  treatment,  which  at  one 
time  was  common  in  these  cases,  is  now  very  exceptional, 
cold-water  bandages  and  other  cooling  treatment,  with  mas- 
sage, being  substituted  for  it.  The  general  increase  in  the 
numbers  treated  for  the  various  complaints  is  attributed 
chiefly  to  the  greater  amount  of  work  the  horses  were  called 
upon  to  do. 

GERMAN    COLONIES. 

[Fiom  "  Zucht  und  Remontirung  der  Militar-Pfenle  aller  Staaten,"  by  Dr.  Paul  Goldbeck,  Berlin, 

1901.] 

Little  is  known  concerning  horse  breeding  in  the  German 
colonies,  in  many  of  which  the  principal  draft  animals  in  use 
are  mules  or  oxen.  In  German  Southwest  Africa  the  number 
of  horses  is  estimated  at  from  3,  GOO  to  4,000.  Mules  were 
formerly  imported  from  Argentina,  but  they  are  now  being 
bred  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  number  of  animals  in 
possession  of  the  protective  force  in  1899  was  1,162  horses,  220 
foals,  350  mules,  and  1,050  oxen.  There  is  a  stud  establish- 
ment, from  which  70  horses  were  delivered  to  the  troops  in 
1899. 

In  German  East  Africa  horses  are  kept  only  for  purposes 
of  mule  breeding,  the  principal  transport  animals  being  asses, 
mules,  and  oxen. 

In  East  Asia  the  mounted  troops  possessed,  in  1900,  69 
horses  and  92  mules,  besides  which  47  officers,  surgeons,  etc., 
were  obliged  to  keep  horses.  The  ration  consists  of  8.82 
pounds  of  barley,  6.61  pounds  bran,  and  17.64  pounds  of  straw; 
for  mules  of  7.72  pounds  barley,  6.61  pounds  bran,  and  17.64 
pounds  of  straw.  When  the  troops  were  mobilized  for  China, 
in  1900,  a  cavalry  regiment  and  a  field  artillery  regiment  were 
formed,  the  horses  for  which  were  purchased  in  America  and 
Australia. 


YII.-GREAT  BRITAIN. 

[Reported  by  Capt.  E.  B.  Cassatt,  Thirteenth  Cavahy,  Tniteil  States  Military  Attache  at  London.] 


1.  The  remounting  of  the  British  army  at  home  is  carried 
out  under  the  orders  of  the  inspector  general  of  remounts,  the 
details  of  whose  work  are  shown  below. 

2.  The  regular  army  abroad,  in  normal  times,  has  no 
mounted  trooi^s  except  in  South  Africa,  Egypt,  and  India. 
For  these  it  has  been  the  custom  to  purchase  locally.  In 
South  Africa  and  in  Egypt  the  horses  for  the  British  and  the 
native  cavalry  are  Syrian  Arabs. 

The  artillery  in  Egypt  is  remounted  from  England. 

In  India  all  the  remounting  of  the  army  is  done  under 
orders  from  the  local  government. 

The  only  irregulars  are  the  troops  of  the  native  states  who 
are  remounted  by  their  own  rulers. 

The  regulars  are,  first,  British  cavalry,  horse  artillery,  field 
artillery,  mule  batteries,  and  elephant  batteries;  second, 
native  cavalry  regiments,  which  are,  for  the  most  part,  what 
is  termed  "silladar,"  that  is  to  say,  horse,  clothing,  arms,  and 
equipment  are  the  property  of  the  trooper.  In  former  times 
the  trooper  enlisted  bringing  with  him  his  own  horse  and 
equipment,  but  now  he  brings  money,  and  everything  is 
found  for  him,  the  money  being  refunded  on  his  discharge. 

The  Madras  cavalry  regiments  are  not  "silladar,"  but  are 
remounted  by  the  government. 

3.  There  are  no  mounted  troops  maintained  in  the  colonies, 
except  a  few  in  Australia  who  are  remounted  by  local 
arrangements. 

•4.  In  the  United  Kingdom  horses  are  acquired  by  purchase 
in  the  open  market,  from  any  dealers  or  private  individuals 
who  may  produce  suitable  horses  when  required.  They  are 
purchased  by  the  inspector  general  and  assistant  inspectors 
of  remounts,  assisted  by  veterinary  surgeons,  who  examine 
for  age  and  soundness. 

(385) 


286  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

The  department  furnisliing  this  information  is  not  at  lib- 
erty to  announce  the  prices  paid. 

5.  The  general  requirements  of  the  different  arms  are  as 
follows : 

For  cavalry : 
Heights — 

Lancers  and  dragoons  .-. - -  15.2  hands. 

Hussars. 15. 1  hands. 

Household  cavalry .-.  16  hands. 

Ages 5  oif  to  6  years. 

These  may,  generally  speaking,  be  described  as  of  the 
hunter  class. 

For  artillery,  engineers,  and  transports : 

Heights - 15.1  to  15. 3  hands. 

Ages 5  off  to  6  years. 

These  should  be  described  as  good  draft  horses,  those  for 
transport  being  somewhat  heavier  than  those  for  artillery. 

For  mounted  infantry  and  yeomanry : 

Heights 14. 2  to  15  hands. 

Ages 5  off  to  6  years. 

Of  the  polo  pony  stamp. 

6.  Sex  is  not  considered  in  mounting  the  army. 

7.  The  subject  of  gaits  or  paces  is  not  considered,  the  idea 
being  that  all  horses  can  be  trained  to  the  regulation  speed 
of  trot,  walk,  and  gallop. 

8.  Color  is  not  considered,  except  in  special  units  as  follows : 
Household  cavalry,  black ;  second  dragoon  guards,  bay ;  sec- 
ond dragoons,  gray.  Gray  horses  are  not  supplied  to  any 
other  corps  except  for  trumpeters  and,  it  is  believed,  to  the 
bands. 

0.  Horses  are  not  weighed  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

10.  In  connection  with  the  ages  mentioned  above,  in  past 
years  a  certain  number  of  4-year-olds  have  been  issued  in  the 
autumn,  but  it  is  now  proposed  to  make  a  strict  rule  that  no 
horse  shall  be  issued  that  is  less  than  full  5  years  old  in  the 
autumn. 

11.  No  pack  animals  are  used  except  one  or  two  per  unit 
selected  from  the  lighter  draft  animals,  or,  in  some  cases, 
mules  for  reserve  of  small-arm  ammunition  with  infantry. 

A  considerable  amount  of  pack  transport  is  used  in  India, 
but  there  is  no  information  at  present  of  the  numbers  main- 
tained. 


GREAT    BRITAIN. 


287 


12.  The   following  is  a  table  of  horses  purchased  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  recent  years : 


Cavalry. 

Royal 

artillery. 

Jlouiited  in 

fa  11  try. 

Trausport. 

1S97  ..  

1,665 
1,061 
7,336 

1,140 
1,286 

0,  yt<5 

30 

59 

2, 276 

325 

]!^;i8 

IS'.tU .._     _._ 

179 
184 

13.  There  are  no  government  studs  in  England  or  the 
colonies. 

14.  As  far  as  I  know,  no  duties,  whether  for  import  or 
export,  are  charged  in  this  country. 

15.  At  present  this  office  has,  with  regard  to  the  number  of 
horses  and  mules  in  the  United  Kingdom,  no  accurate  infor- 
mation, but  such  information  is  promised. 

16.  In  the  army,  with  the  exception  of  South  Africa,  the 
numbers  at  present  are  as  follows : 


Cavalry. 

Royal  artillery. 

Mouu 

eil  infantry. 

Transport. 

7,847 
361 

9, 940 

287 

120 
120 
100 
h 

2,889 

Eevpt  -    .      

48 

Malta    -._       _     _ 

100 

ludia 

(( 4,  725 

7,455 

6 

a  Exclusive  of  "sillaciar"  horse. 


17.  On  mobilization  for  home  defense  about  186,000  horses 
will  be  required.  It  is  not  known  when  or  where  they  will 
be  obtained.  The  number  of  horses  required  on  mobilization 
for  over-sea  warfare  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  extent  of 
the  operations. 

18.  The  annual  loss  at  home  and  in  Egypt  from  all  causes 
is  12  per  cent. 

19.  Horses  are  retained  from  ten  to  eleven  years. 

20.  In  normal  times  the  average  number  recjuired  annually 
for  the  United  Kingdom  is  1,300. 

21.  No  training  is  required  of  horses  before  they  are  issued 
to  units,  and  they  are  bought  broken  or  unbroken. 

22.  No  depots  exist  for  breaking  in  horses  before  they  are 
issued  to  units,  but  in  normal  times  there  are  two  depots  for 
assembly  of  remounts,  namely,  Woolwich  for  artillery  and 
transport;  Dublin  (including  Lusk)  for  all  branches. 

23.  All  horses  are  branded  with  an  army  number,  figures 
of  over  three  digits,  on  the  near  hind  foot ;  three  digits  and 
under  on  the  off  hind  foot;  sc^uadron,  battery,  and  company 
numbers  on  the  fore  feet. 

24.  According  to  the  department  furnishing  this  informa- 
tion, vaccination  of  horses  in  the  British  army  is  not  carried 


388  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

out,  but  section  10  of  the  Regulations  for  Army  Veterinary 
Services  reads  as  follows : 

The  army  vaccine  institute  of  Aldershot  will  be  under  the  direction  of 
the  professor  of  the  army  veterinary  school,  subject  to  the  orders  of  the 
district  veterinary  officer  of  the  command.  He  will  be  held  responsible 
for  the  vaccination  of  calves,  and  for  the  collection  and  issue  of  lymph. 
In  these  duties  he  will  be  assisted  by  the  assistant  professor  of  the  school. 
He  will  submit  to  the  district  veterinary  officer,  for  the  information  of 
the  war  office,  a  monthly  return  showing  the  amount  of  lymph  issued 
from  the  institute,  together  with  the  results  obtained  by  lymph  issued 
during  the  previous  month.  He  will  furnish  an  annual  report  on  the 
working  of  the  institute  and  its  results,  through  the  district  veterinary 
officer,  to  the  general  officer  commanding. 

The  district  veterinary  officer  will  ascertain,  from  time  to  time,  that 
the  stock  of  lymph  on  hand  is  not  in  excess  of  the  quantity  reqiiired  to 
meet  immediate  demands,  and  that  no  lymph,  which  may  have  dete- 
riorated from  age  or  other  caiase,  is  issued. 

This  seems  rather  inconsistent  with  the  statement  that  no 
vaccination  is  carried  on. 

25.  Shoeing. — The  following  is  taken  from  Regulations  for 
Army  Veterinary  Services : 

I. — REGULATION   SHOE. 

The  kind  of  shoe  to  be  used  in  all  branches  of  the  service,  unless  other- 
wise specially  ordered,  is  the  "concave  shoe" — that  is,  one  which  is  con- 
cave on  its  ground  surface  and  fiat  on  its  foot  surface — for  both  fore  and 
hind  feet.  The  inner  margin  of  the  web  in  contact  with  the  foot  should 
be  brought  to  a  thin  edge.  The  thickness  and  breadth  of  the  web  of  the 
shoe  will  be  uniform  all  round.  The  heels  of  the  shoes  will  be  rounded 
and  well  sloped. 

The  nail  holes  will  be  from  six  to  eight  in  number,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  foot  and  weight  of  the  shoe,  and  placed  in  the  groove  or  "fuller- 
ing "  on  each  side.  The  nail  holes  on  one  side  of  the  shoe  will  be  opposite 
those  on  the  other  side ;  when  only  five  nails  are  used,  the  inside  heel  nail 
will  be  left  oiit. 

One  toe  clip  is  to  be  used  with  the  fore  shoe,  and  two  toe  clips  with  the 
hind  shoe.  In  the  case  of  draft  horses,  one  toe  clip  only  in  the  hind  shoe 
may  be  allowed.  A  quarter  clip  may  be  used  when  required,  in  the  case 
of  "kickers."  Calks  maybe  used,  when  considered  necessary,  on  light  or 
draft  shoes. 

Tips,  or  half  shoes,  in  cases  of  contraction,  chronic  thrush,  sandcrack, 
corns,  or  other  diseases  or  defects,  also  shoes  with  turned-up  toes,  or  other 
shoes  for  special  purposes,  may  be  used  at  the  discretion  of  the  veterinary 
officer. 

II. — HOW  TO   PREPARE   THE   FOOT   AND   FIT   THE   SHOE. 

When  preparing  the  foot  for  the  shoe,  the  ground  surface  of  the  wall 
will  be  lowered  to  a  sufficient  extent  with  the  rasp.  The  drawing  knife 
will  not  be  used.     The  sole  will  be  left  uncut.     The  frog  must  not  be 


I 

I 


GREAT    BRITAIN. 


289 


touched  if  it  is  sound  and  firm.  If,  however,  it  is  ragged  and  soft,  and 
inclined  to  thrush,  it  shoiild  be  attended  to  and  dressed.  "When  necessary, 
the  toes  of  the  feet  will  be  shortened  by  rasping  the  ground  surface  of  the 
fore  part  of  the  hoof.  The  toes  will  not  be  shortened  after  the  hoofs  are 
shod. 

The  shoes  made  by  farriers  will  not  be  fitted  when  too  hot.  The  shoes 
will  be  made  to  fit  accurately  the  outer  edge  of  the  crust  round  to,  and 
inchiding,  the  heels.  It  wnll  not  project  beyond  the  wall  at  any  point  ex- 
cept a  little  at  the  heels.  The  outer  edge  of  the  wall  will  be  well  rounded 
with  the  rasp  before  the  shoe  is  fitted  or  affixed,  but  no  rasping  of  any 
kind  will  be  permitted  after  the  shoe  is  on.  The  nails  will  not  be  driven 
too  high  up  in  the  wall,  and  the  clenches  are  to  be  evenly  laid. 

Every  horse  is  to  be  shod  with  new  shoes  when  necessary.  When  the 
shoes  are  not  worn  out,  removes  are  allowed  at  the  discretion  of  the  com- 
manding officer  or  veterinary  officers. 

The  practice  of  using  grease,  tar,  or  other  dressings,  to  the  horse's  feet 
generally,  will  not  be  allowed. 

Instructions  with  regard  to  the  preparation  and  keeping  up  of  shoeing 
books  by  farrier  sergeants  will  be  found  in  queen's  regulations. 

III. — INSPECTION   OF   SHOEING   AT  OUT  STATIONS   BY   OFFICERS. 

At  out  stations,  the  officer  in  veterinary  charge  will  supervise  the  shoe- 
ing.    His  attention  is  directed  to  the  following  points : 

1.  That  the  horses  are  kept  well  shod. 

2.  That  the  farriers  make  a  daily  inspection  to  see  that  no  clenches  are 
left  up,  that  all  broken  nails  are  replaced  and  that  unsound  frogs  are 
properly  attended  to. 

3.  That  the  sole  and  frog  are  uncut  with  the  drawing  knife. 

4.  That  the  outside  of  the  wall  has  not  been  rasped. 

5.  That  the  nails  are  not  driven  too  high  up. 

6.  That  the  toes  are  properly  shortened  in  the  way  described. 
Special  facilities  exist  at  out  stations  for  training  men  to  become  shoe- 

ing-smiths  and  "  cold-shoers."  Officers  commanding  should,  therefore, 
encourage  men  to  attend  the  forge  for  instruction. 

IV. — DIMENSIONS  OF  HORSESHOES   BY  SIZES. 

For  convenience  of  reference,  the  sizes  of  shoes,  fore  and  hind,  are 
divided  and  numbered  1  to  8.  The  following  tables  give  the  approximate 
dimensions  of  the  several  shoes : 


Fore  shoes  for 

riding,  draft,  and  wheel  horses. 

Size 

Width. 

Leugth. 

Width 
of  web. 

Average 
weight. 

Number  of 

nail  holes  on 

each  side. 

Designation 
number 
of  nails. 

No.  1          -        „     -  - 

/./.Acs. 
4 

6 

Inches. 
4K 
fs 

5>| 
5% 
6 
6}i 

iHches. 

1 

'/a 

1 

1 

Ounces. 
8 

14 
16 

22K 
25 

281-^ 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 

3  or  4 

No.  2        - 

6 

No.  3 

No.  4 

6 

7 

No.  5 

8 

No.  6 

8 

No.  7     . 

9 

No.  8                          

9 

290  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OP   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

Hind  shoes  for  riding  and  lead  horses. 


Size. 

Wiath. 

Length. 

Width 
of  web. 

Averajie 
weight. 

Number  of 

uail  holes  on 

each  side. 

Designation 
number 
of  nails. 

No.  1     -       

Inches. 
i 

4% 
4% 
5 

ri 

Inches. 

5% 
6 

Inches. 

i 

1 

Ounce.''. 
8 
13 

24 
26 
29 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 

3  or  4 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

6 

6 

7 
8  or  9 
8  or  9 

No.  7 

9 

No.  8 

9 

Hind  shoes  iritli  calks  for  wheel  horses. 


No.  .5. 
No.  6_ 
No.  7_ 
No.  8. 


^H 

s% 

% 

22 

by. 

G 

M 

24 

ri% 

6M 

1 

26>-2 

ij 

6>$ 

1 

33 

8  or  9  heel 
holes,  10 
toe  holes. 

8  or  9  heel 
holes,  10 
toe  holes. 

9  heel  holes, 

11     toe 
holes. 
9  heel  holes, 
11     toe 
holes. 


V. — COLD-SHOEING. 

Veterinary  oflficers  are  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  details 
necessary  to  render  the  system  of  cold-shoeing  as  perfect  as  possible,  and 
especially  with  regard  to  the  requirements  of  field  service.  They  should 
be  able  to  recognize  the  different  sizes  of  shoes  and  nails,  and  know  the 
proportion  of  sizes  required  in  the  units  to  which  they  are  attached,  so  that 
provision  may  be  made  for  an  ample  supply  in  barracks,  on  the  line  of 
march,  or  in  the  field. 

In  working  the  system,  commanding  officers  should  give  veterinary  offi- 
cers every  support,  as  the  latter  will  have  to  see  that  the  shoeing  is  carried 
on  with  the  utmost  care  and  economy,  and  at  the  same  time  efficiently ; 
that  the  instruction  afforded  by  the  farrier  staff  sergeant  and  sergeants  to 
the  shoeing-smith,  acting  shoeing-sraiths,  and  learners,  is  carried  out 
properly  and  thoroughly,  and  that  as  many  men  from  the  ranks  as  possible 
are  trained  to  shoe.  Attention  is  directed  to  the  regulations  issued  with 
regard  to  keeping  men  already  instructed  in  practice  by  having  them  in 
the  forge  at  intervals,  and  for  as  long  a  time  as  may  be  necessary  or  con- 
venient. 

The  chief  feature  in  the  system,  and  the  one  upon  which  the  scheme  is 
mainly  based,  is  the  adoption  to  a  large  extent  of  the  practice  of  what  is 
generally  known  as  "cold-shoeing,"  i.  e.,  the  cold  fitting  of  shoes  issued 
ready  for  immediate  use,  and  nails  requiring  no  preparation,  both  being 
provided  from  s'tore. 

One-half  of  the  shoes  and  nails  required  for  units  will  be  so  supplied,  the 
object  in  view  being  to  maintain  the  practice  of  shoeing  exactly  as  it  would 
have  to  be  performed  in  the  field — quickly,  simply,  and  efficiently;  and  to 


GREAT   BRITAIN.  291 

allow  of  the  training  of  large  numbers  of  men  in  the  ranks  as  shoers,  while 
also  making  provision  for  a  supply  of  veterinary  assistants  for  war  service 
from  the  farrier  staff  sergeants  and  sergeants  and  shoeing-smiths  who  have 
successfully  passed  through  the  Aldershot  or  other  recognized  military 
veterinary  school. 

The  remaining  half  of  the  shoes  will  be  made  from  old  shoes,  and  the 
remaining  half  of  the  nails  from  nail  rod  supplied  on  requisition,  in  order 
to  instruct  and  keep  the  shoers  in  practice,  so  that  in  cases  of  emergency, 
as  when  the  supply  of  shoes  or  nails  fails,  but  the  materials  for  making 
them  are  available,  there  may  be  no  interruption  to  the  shoeing.  It  is 
estimated  that  one  and  a  half  or  two  old  shoes  will  suifice  to  make  a 
new  one. 

Fuel,  tools,  aprons,  and  other  materials  necessary  for  shoeing,  as  laid 
down  in  the  equipment  regulations,  will  be  supplied  from  store  at  regular 
intervals,  or  on  application  when  required. 

The  maximum  requirement  of  shoes  should  not  exceed  18  sets  a  year  per 
horse,  and  with  care  it  may,  under  favorable  conditions,  be  considerably 
reduced.  The  supply  of  nails  is  more  than  is  necessary  for  new  shoes ; 
indeed,  in  the  smaller  sizes  of  shoes,  and  particularly  the  fore  ones,  all 
the  nail  holes  need  not  be  filled,  five  nails  being  generally  sufficient  for 
each  shoe,  if  well  placed  and  driven  in  the  hoof ;  the  surplus  can  therefore 
be  iitilized  in  removing  shoes  or  replacing  lost  ones.  Loss  or  waste  of 
shoes  and  nails  is  to  be  carefully  guarded  against,  and  when  it  can  be 
clearly  proved  that  this  is  due  to  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  farriers, 
or  others,  they  should  be  required  to  replace  them  at  their  own  expense. 

A  new  rasp  should  last,  when  supplemented  by  an  old  one,  from  six 
weeks  to  two  months,  or  longer.  This  is  the  tool  which  must  be  replaced 
most  frequently.  The  wear  of  the  other  tools  is  indefinite,  but  they  will 
not  be  replaced  at  the  public  expense  unless  certified  that  they  are  fairly 
worn  out,  or  broken  or  lost  through  no  fault  of  the  farriers. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  training  of  farrier  staff  sergeants  and  sergeants 
and  shoeing-smiths,  to  act  as  hospital  assistants  on  active  service,  be  kej)t 
up  in  regiments,  even  when  they  have  passed  a  course  of  instruction  at  the 
Aldershot  or  other  recognized  military  veterinary  school ;  and  veterinary 
officers  are  to  afford  them  every  opportunity  in  this  direction. 

The  squadron  shoeing-smiths  are  to  be  trained  so  as  to  be  in  readiness 
for  promotion  to  the  rank  of  farrier  sergeant ;  and  those  who  are  to  be 
made  shoeing-smiths  should  be  selected  from  the  best  men  for  the  purpose. 

It  is  incumbent  upon  commanding  officers  to  watch  carefully  the  working 
of  the  system,  in  order  to  prevent  waste,  and  they  will  hold  the  veterinary 
officers  in  charge  responsible  that  the  horses  are  not  shod  oftener  than  is 
actually  necessary,  and  that  all  shoes,  nails,  iron,  and  coals  issued  to  the 
farriers  are  appropriated  solely  to  the  uses  for  which  they  are  supplied. 

VI. — INSTRUCTION   OF  SOLDIERS  IN   COLD-SHOEING. 

With  the  view  of  insuring  thoroughness  and  uniformity  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  soldiers  in  shoeing  horses,  in  the  manner  required  to  be  followed 
on  active  service,  directions  for  instruction  are  laid  down  in  Appendix 
VIII.  Shoes  are  provided  ready  for  immediate  application  to  the  hoofs,  or 
needing  only  trifling  alteration  in  shape  in  special  cases ;  and  nails  are  also 


292  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

issued,  "pointed"  and  finished  in  such  a  way  as  also  to  be  ready  for  use 
without  further  preparation. 

The  different  steps  in  the  operation  of  shoeing  are  to  be  adopted  method- 
ically and  progressively,  and  taught  thoroughly. 

For  instruction,  men  ai-e  to  be  preferred  who  have  been  accustomed  to 
work  in  a  forge,  to  handle  a  hammer,  or  to  manipulate  horses'  legs  and 
feet. 

No  man  is  to  be  dismissed  as  proficient  who  can  not  shoe  a  horse,  serv- 
iceably  well,  within  an  hour. 

Level,  even  fitting  of  the  shoe  to  the  foot  and  careful  and  solid  nailing 
on  are  the  chief  objects  to  be  attained  in  this  system  of  shoeing. 

VII. — WINTER  SHOEING   BY   THE   INSERTION   OF   FROST  NAILS. 

These  nails  are  intended  for  "roughing"  horses  in  frosty  or  slippery 
weather,  and  are  made  of  mild  steel,  having  chisel-shaped  heads.  The 
heads  are  hardened,  but  the  shanks  are  not. 

The  "small"  size  is  similar  in  shape  in  the  shank  to  the  ordinary  horse- 
shoe iron  nails,  and  is  suitable  for  use  by  medium  or  light  cavalry  and 
other  riding  horses.  The  shoes  for  such  horses  will  range  from  No.  2  to 
No.  4  or  5  sizes. 

The  "large"  size  nails  are  suitable  for  mounted  services  other  than  those 
mentioned  above,  the  shoes  for  which  range  from  No.  5  to  8. 

The  average  weight  per  1,000  is:  large,  35i  pounds;  small,  24  pounds. 

The  following  general  instructions  for  the  use  of  these  frost  nails  are 
published  for  the  information  of  all  those  concerned : 

One  shovild  be  inserted  in  each  heel  of  each  fore  shoe,  and  one  in  the 
outer  heel  of  each  hind  shoe,  where  there  are  no  calks  or  wedge  heels ;  or, 
should  it  be  considered  expedient,  in  the  case  of  draft  or  other  heavy  horses 
one  nail  would  be  inserted  in  each  heel,  and  in  the  toes  when  considered 
requisite.  For  this  purpose  the  "small"  nail  will  do,  as  the  shank  will,  if 
necessary,  penetrate  the  hoof. 

For  di'aft  horses  an  oblique  hole  similar  to  those  in  the  heels  should  be 
stamped  between  the  first  and  second  toe  nail  holes,  so  that  frost  nails  can 
be  readily  inserted  in  the  same  manner  when  required. 

These  holes  would  take  the  small  or  large  frost  nails  at  discretion. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  head  of  the  outside  nail  across  the  shoe, 
and  the  inside  one  in  the  same  line  as  the  shoe,  so  as  to  prevent  injury  to 
the  opposite  leg  of  the  horse. 

The  success  of  these  nails  entirely  depends  on  the  accuracy  with  which 
they  are  fitted  to  the  nail  holes.  The  countersunk  portion  of  the  nail 
head  should  be  completely  embedded  therein,  only  allowing  the  "chisel" 
head  or  sharp  portion  to  remain  above  the  shoe,  otherwise  an  undue  strain 
is  caused  on  the  neck  of  the  nail,  which  breaks  or  wears  loose,  or  bends 
over.  Too  much  attention  can  not  be  paid  to  this,  as  a  neglect  of  it  often 
leads  to  failure. 

The  horses  must  be  shod  a  little  wider  at  the  heels  than  usual,  to  allow 
of  exit  of  nails  without  penetrating  the  horn,  and  the  nail  hole  must  be 
punched  exactly  on  the  wearing  surface,  from  whence  it  should  pass 
obliquely  upward  and  outward  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  shoe.  The 
nail  should  fit  tightly ;  to  insure  this,  it  is  a  good  plan,  after  the  nail  is 


GREAT   BRITAIN.  293 

turned  outward  from  the  shoe  to  let  the  horse  put  his  full  weight  on  it, 
and  then  to  fasten  it. 

A  groove  may  be  made  in  the  shoe  where  the  nail  turns  over  at  the  side 
of,  and  under,  the  shoe.  This  would  protect  the  shank  and  also  prevent 
its  striking  the  opposite  leg. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  remove  the  nails  when  the  horses  return  to  stables, 
but  it  may  be  done  at  discretion.  No  special  tools  are  needed  for  the  use 
of  these  nails ;  the  ordinary  stamp  and  pritchel  are  suitable,  and  the  nails 
are  readily  removed  with  pincers. 

Sample  shoes,  showing  the  exact  way  of  making  the  holes  and  securing 
the  nails,  will  be  supplied  on  demand  for  the  guidance  of  farriers. 
.   To  avoid  waste  and  loss,  all  unused  frost  nails  at  the  end  of  winter  are 
to  be  returned  by  commanding  officers  to  the  chief  ordnance  officer  of  the 
district. 

At  the  discretion  of  the  veterinary  officer  the  shank  of  the  nail  may  be 
pinched  off  about  half  an  inch  from  the  foot  surface  of  the  shoe ;  this  can 
be  done  by  making  a  nick  in  the  nail  with  the  edge  of  the  rasp;  a  twist  or 
two  of  the  pincers  will  then  break  the  nail.  The  part  of  the  shank 
remaining  should  be  firmly  fastened  by  being  hammered  down. 

26.  Shoeing  is  carried,  out  in  all  units  by  the  farriers  under 
the  orders  of  the  commanding  officers,  and  supervised  by  the 
veterinary  surgeons  in  the  forges. 

27.  Horses  are  groomed  twice  a  day  in  winter,  i.  e.,  morn- 
ing and  midday,  but  when  they  do  not  come  in  from  work 
before  the  dinner  hour,  they  are  groomed  in  the  afternoon. 
At  the  evening  stable  hour  little  grooming  is  done,  but  horses 
are  rubbed  down  and  wisped. 

28.  Forage. — The  following  is  taken  from  the  Regulations 
for  the  Allowances  of  the  Army : 

SCALE  OF   ISSUES  IN  KIND   AT   HOME. 

The  following  are  the  daily  issues  of  forage  for  horses  in  the  United 
Kinardom : 


Oats. 


If  in  quarters 

If  in  camp,  or  in  other  circumstances  which  are,  in  the  opinion  of  the  gen- 
eral officercommauding,  equivalent  to  being  in  camp.  (A  special  report 
should,  in  the  latter  case,  be  made  to  the  war  office) 


Pounds. 
10 


Pomvh.   Pounds. 
12  8 

1: 


For  cobs  the  daily  issues  will  be  2  pounds  of  oats  less  than  the  above. 
The  ration  of  forage  counts  from  the  midday  feed  of  the  day  for  which 
it  is  drawn,  and  therefore  includes  the  morning  feed  of  the  next  day. 
An  extra  issue  of  3  pounds  of  oats  may  be  made  as  follows: 

(a)  For  horses  of  the  army  service  corps  throughout  the  year  when 
drawing  wagons  at  a  trot. 

(b)  For  all  horses — other  than  those  drawing  under  (a) — employed  at 
draft  work  for  at  least  five  hours  a  day  during  the  period  from  October 
to  April,  inclusive. 


294 


REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 


(c)  For  horses  employed  on  special  work  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
general  officer  commanding,  renders  the  issue  necessary,  a  special  report 
being  made  to  the  war  office. 

(d)  For  draft  horses,  of  the  army  service  corps,  of  16  hands  and  over  in 
addition  to  the  ration  they  are  otherwise  entitled  to  whether  in  quarters 
or  in  camp. 

The  ration  for  mules  at  home  will  be  as  follows : 


Mules  of  15  hands  and  upward  employed  on.  heavy  draft  work 

The  same  if  in  encampments 

Smaller  mules 

The  same  if  in  encampments 


Oats; 

Hay. 

Pounds. 

Poundn. 

10 

12 

12 

12 

5 

10 

fi 

12 

Potmds. 
S 
Nil. 


The  ration  for  registered  horses  employed  for  mobilization  purposes 
will  be  as  follows : 

Pound.s. 

Oats 18 

Hay -.--        10 

The  authorized  ration  is  laid  down  as  being  sufficient  for  the  average 
requirements  of  horses.  Officers  commanding  mounted  units  will  use 
their  discretion,  as  a  matter  of  regimental  arrangement,  in  directing  the 
distribution  of  the  proportions  of  the  full  ration.  Power  is  also  given  in 
the  conditions  of  contract  which  will  further  enable  the  officer  command- 
ing to  vary  the  food  of  the  horses  of  the  unit  by  giving  equivalents  in  lieu 
of  a  portion  of  the  ordinary  ration. 

The  following  scale  of  equivalents  shows  the  substitutes  which  are 
allowed  to  be  drawn  where  necessary  (all  equivalents  of  each  other) : 

Pounds. 

Barley 1 

Straw 2 

Bran 1^ 

Malt -- I 

Oatmeal -..  ^ 

Hay li 

Oats 1 

Carrots,  green  fodder,  linseed,  and  mangelwurzel,  and  other  articles, 
are  in  lieu  of  oats  or  hay,  the  issues  to  be  regulated  according  to  their 
average  market  value  as  compared  with  the  contract  rates  for  the  oats  or 
hay  for  which  they  are  substituted. 

Deviations  from  this  scale  may  be  made  in  special  cases  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  general  officer  commanding,  provided  the  variations  sanctioned 
do  not  give  rise  to  increased  cost. 

29.  No  compressed  forage  is  issued  except  foreign  and  colo- 
nial hay  (and  there  is  no  rule  to  regulate  this)  which  is 
sometimes  bought  in  place  of  the  home-grown  supply, 

30.  Officers  of  cavalry,  horse  artillerj^,  staff,  and  infantry 
supply  their  own  horses  at  their  own  expense.  In  the  field 
artillery  the  governm.ent  supplies  officers  free  of  charge. 


GREAT    BRITAIN.  295 

The  regulations  permit  all  officers  to  hire  horses  for  £10 
per  annum,  and  officers  under  the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel 
to  purchase  remounts,  under  certain  conditions,  but  the 
revision  of  these  rules  is  now  under  consideration. 

COURSE  OF  INSTEUCTION   OF  SOLDIERS   IX   SHOEING. 

[Ki'Siiliitions  for  Array  A'eterinary  Service,  Appendix  VIII.] 

Instruction  1. — The  easiest  and  safest  method  of  seizing,  lifting,  and 
holding  the  horses'  front  and  hind  feet,  as  in  the  operation  of  shoeing. 

Note. — This  instruction  should  be  carried  out  on  old  steady  horses,  and 
particular  care  should  be  observed  in  showing  how  the  shoer  is  to  manage 
a  restless  or  vicious  horse,  and  the  precautions  to  be  adopted  to  guard 
himself  from  injury.     Patient  and  gentle  treatment  should  be  inculcated. 

How  to  shoe  troublesome  horses  with  the  side  line  on  the  hind  leg  is 
also  to  be  taught. 

Instruction  2. — The  best  and  most  expeditioiis  way  to  take  off  fore  and 
hind  shoes. 

Note. — Completely  cut  off  all  the  clinches,  insert  pincers  between  shoe 
and  hoof,  toward  the  extremity  of  inside  heel,  pry  steadily  and  firmly 
dowaiward  and  across  the  foot  to  start  heel  nails,  and  withdraw  these; 
then  apply  pincers  to  outside  heel  in  the  same  manner,  withdrawing  nails, 
and  so  on  until  the  shoe  is  off. 

Show  how  to  remove  broken  nails  from  the  hoof  when  the  shoe  is  off ; 
and  also  how  to  take  off  shoe  from  a  painful  foot,  by  driving  the  nails 
downward  from  the  front  of  the  hoof  and  withdrawing  them  one  by  one. 

Instruction  3. — How  to  handle  the  rasp,  and  reduce  the  wall  of  the 
hoof  properly  to  its  normal  dimensions. 

Note. — The  proper  length  and  natural  slope  of  the  wall  are  to  be  shown, 
and  the  method  of  obtaining  these  in  an  overgrown  hoof  demonstrated. 
This  is  important.  Hoof  to  be  made  quite  level  on  the  ground  surface, 
which  should  have  a  wide  and  solid  bearing  for  the  shoe  to  rest  upon. 
The  sides  of  the  hoof  should  be  eqvial  in  height,  so  as  to  keep  leg  and  foot 
in  a  straight  direction.  Toe  of  hoof  well  shortened ;  heels  not  too  much 
lowered.  Sole  and  frog  to  remain  strong  and  unpared,  loose  fragments 
only  being  removed.     Edge  of  the  wall  to  be  rounded. 

Instruction  4. — How  to  fit  a  shoe  projierly  and  quickly. 

A  off.— As  it  is  not  possible  to  provide  shoes  to  fit  all  hoofs  exactly — 
these  varying  greatly  in  size  and  form — the  number  of  the  size  required 
should  be  explained,  and  if  alteration  in  length  or  shape  is  needed  how 
this  should  be  effected — making  the  shoe  narrower  or  wider,  more  elon- 
gated or  more  circular,  as  the  shape  of  the  hoof  may  demand.  The  shoe 
should  fit  the  full  outline  of  the  hoof.  A  small  portion  of  the  horn  must 
be  removed  at  the  toe  of  the  fore  foot,  sides  of  toe  of  hind  foot,  to  effect 
this  and  to  lodge  the  clip.  If  the  alteration  is  made  on  the  anvil,  it  should 
be  by  a  series  of  firm,  steady,  and  not  too  heavy  blows  of  the  hammer. 
When  altered  to  the  proper  shape,  the  shoe  should  be  made  perfectly  level 
by  hammering  it  lightly  on  the  svirface ;  this  also  makes  it  wear  better. 

Instruct  how  to  alter  shoes  without  an  anvil,  as  on  the  tire  or  nave  of  a 
cart  wheel,  stone,  etc. 

Nail  holes  to  be  easy  for  the  neck  of  nails ;  if  too  tight  widen  from  the 
fuller  surface,  not  the  back  of  the  shoe.  With  holes  too  tight,  the  nails 
break  at  the  neck.  Show  how  to  narrow  or  close  fuller,  so  as  to  allow 
smaller  nails  to  be  used  in  case  of  necessity. 

There  shoiald  be  solid  and  close  coadaptation  between  the  surface  of 
Tioof  and  shoe,  to  insure  the  latter  being  well  retained.     Shoe  to  rest  on 


296 


REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN  ARMIES. 


the  entire  width  of  the  wall  and  margin  of  sole.  All  but  the  heavy  hind 
shoes  with  calks  can  be  altered  in  a  cold  state,  as  a  rule ;  and  these  can  be 
also  altered  to  some  extent  without  heating  them,  when  alteration  is 
necessary. 

Instruction  5. — How  to  nail  on  a  shoe  safely  and  securely. 

Note. — The  shape  of  the  nail  is  to  be  explained  and  the  reasons  for  the 
bevel  at  the  point  insisted  upon,  in  order  to  prevent  the  nail  from  entering 
the  sensitive  parts  of  the  foot.  The  mode  of  driving  the  nails ;  height  to 
which  they  should  be  driven  in  the  horn ;  their  direction — toe  nails  lightly 
forward,  so  as  to  include  more  of  the  fibers  of  the  wall ;  when  all  are 
inserted,  how  they  should  be  driven  home  and  drawn  up  at  ends  (with 
the  fore  feet  toe  nails  first,  and  firmly;  heel  nails  last,  and  lightly). 

Instruction  6. — How  to  finish  shoeing. 

Note.  — Laying  down  and  embedding  the  ends  of  the  nails,  or ' '  clinching, " 
to  be  taught ;  and  the  necessity  for  the  clinches  being  strong,  and  pro- 
jecting as  little  as  possible  beyond  the  wall,  especially  on  the  inside  of  the 
hoofs. 

The  surface  of  the  wall  not  to  be  rasped  except  round  the  edges  between 
it  and  the  shoe. 

It  is  desirable,  if  possible,  to  acquaint  the  men  under  instruction  with 
the  structure  of  the  horse's  foot,  even  should  the  instruction  be  very 
elementary,  the  hoof  being  the  chief  subject  for  consideration. 

How  to  fasten  a  loose  shoe ;  how  to  make  a  hind  shoe  fit  a  front  foot, 
and  vice  versa,  on  an  emergency ;  how  to  remedy  too  fine  or  too  coarse 
nail  holes ;  and  how  to  act  when  a  nail  has  been  accidently  driven  into  or 
too  near  the  quick,  should  also  be  taught. 

HORSES,  COBS,  AND  MULES  PURCHASED  BY  GREAT  BRITAIN  BETWEEN  OCTOBER 
1,  1899,  AND  MAY   31,  1901. 


Country. 


Horses.     Cobs.       Total.      Mules 


Great  Britain 

Ireland 

Argentina 

United  States  of  America. 

Canada 

Australia 

Hungary 

Italy..: 

Spain 

Cyprus 


35, 197 
7,372 


10,  647 
3,664 
7,118 
6,  945 


3,149 
4,147 
25, 872 
30,412 
824 
3,083 
5,400 


38, 346 
11,519 
25, 872 
41,059 
4,488 
10,  201 
12, 345 


56, 987 


7,004 

15, 229 

128 


The  official  returns  give  the  number  of  remounts  purchased 
abroad  for  the  South- African  campaign  as  67,958  for  1900  and 
91,983  for  1901.  The  total  number  of  horses  sent  to  South 
Africa  from  the  British  Isles,  India,  the  colonies,  and  from 
abroad,  in  1900  and  1901,  is  242,311. 


BRITISH   COLONIES. 

[From  "  Zuchtund  Remontirungder  Militjir-Pferde  aller  Staaten,"  by  Dr.  Paul  Goldbeck,  Berlin,  1901.] 

INDIA. 

It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  England  would  take  energetic 
measures  to  promote  raising  in  this,  her  most  important 
colony,   but  horse  raising,  as  well  as  agriculture,  in  India 


GREAT   BRITAIN.  297 

depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  timely  arrival  of  the  mon- 
soon, and,  as  droughts  are  prevalent,  horse  breeding  suffers 
as  a  consequence.  Until  1876  the  government  kept  its  own 
studs,  but  the  results  were  so  poor  that  this  method  was 
abandoned  and  an  entirely  new  system  introduced.  At  pres- 
ent rural  studs  and  government  stallions  are  maintained,  the 
latter  being  sent  to  depots.  The  purpose  of  these  measures 
was  to  obtain  good  cavalry  remounts.  The  mares  are  inspected 
and  if  declared  fit  for  breeding  are  branded  "V  I"  (veteri- 
nary inspection)  on  one  shoulder  and  are  served  by  the 
government  stallions  free  of  charge.  Not  all  parts  of  India 
are  by  any  means  adapted  to  horse  breeding,  the  famine 
districts  being  in  this  respect  absolutely  excluded.  Breeding 
flourishes  most  in  the  northwestern  provinces  of  Punjab, 
Beluchistan,  and  Sind,  and  in  Deccan,  of  the  Bombay  presi- 
dency. 

Table  showing  number  of  stallions  kept  by  the  govern- 
ment, together  with  the  number  of  mares  served  by  them  in 
1898-99 : 

Full-sized  types : 

Thoroughbreds  and  three-fourth  breds.  _ 103 

English  half -breds  and  Norf  oiks 58 

Hackney.--   : 44 

Roadster 2 

Australian 47 

Arabs 131 

Local  breeds 5 

Total  stallions 390 

Ponies : 

Arab 17 

Local  breeds -. 1 

Total  pony  stallions 18 

Total  stallions,  including  pony  stallions 408 

Jacks 406 

Number  of  mares 15,694 

The  English  thoroughbred  has  done  good  work  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  races  in  India  wherever  good  specimens 
were  employed,  but  it  has  become  unpopular  owing  to  the 
poor  specimens,  so  that  Australian  thoroughbreds  are  now 
preferred.  Hackneys  have  been  utilized  to  increase  the  size 
of  the  native  breeds,  but  the  products  soon  become  too  bulky 


298  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

for  cavalry  purposes.  Arab  stock  is  very  popular,  as  it  per- 
petuates its  traits  and  eliminates  many  weak  points  inherent 
in  the  native  mares. 

Besides  the  government  stallions  mentioned,  numerous  pro- 
vincial governments  and  private  parties  keep  breeding  stal- 
lions, these  amounting  in  1898-99  to  198  animals,  among 
which  the  Arab  blood  predominated. 

The  best  known  of  the  native  races  of  nearer  India  are  the 
Punjabs.  In  general  the  horse  bred  here  is  a  small  animal 
l-li  hands  high,  resembling  the  Afghan ;  there  are,  however, 
also  larger  horses  called  "Turki"  or  "Irani." 

In  Bengal  the  native  horse  is  a  pony  12  to  13  hands  high. 

In  farther  India  an  excellent  pony  is  found  in  Burma,  but 
neither  mares  nor  stallions  of  this  race  are  exported. 

Mule  breeding  is  given,  in  India,  considerable  attention, 
the  number  of  jacks  used  for  this  service  in  1899  having  been 
406. 

There  were  in  India  in  1897  a  total  of  1,120,194  horses, 
1,110,072  mules  and  asses,  and  233,477  camels.  These  were 
distributed  as  follows :  Northwest  i^rovinces  and  Oudh,  493,000 
horses  and  309,000  mules  and  asses;  Punjab,  271,000  horses 
and  557,000  mules  and  asses;  Bombay,  152,000  horses  and 
67,000  mules  and  asses. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  Indian  government  to  supply  the  troops 
exclusively  with  horses  bred  at  home.  This  plan,  however, 
is  not  yet  entirely  feasible,  although  energetic  measures  have 
been  taken  to  promote  horse  breeding. 

The  native  cavalry  consists  of  19  regiments  of  Bengal  lan- 
cers, 5  of  Punjab  cavalry,  1  queen's  own  corps  of  guides  in 
Mardan,  1  detachment  of  police  in  the  Northwest  Province 
and  Oudh,  2  in  Punjab,  1  detachment  imperial  service  corps 
troops,  2  regiments  central  India  horse,  and  1  remount  depot. 
The  number  of  horses  in  a  native  regiment  is  about  600.  Of 
the  English  imperial  troops  only  three  regiments  obtain  their 
remounts  in  India,  all  the  artillery  and  the  remainder  of  the 
cavalry  purchasing  Australian  horses.  The  native  cavalry 
troops,  on  the  contrary,  are  supplied  almost  entirely  with 
home-bred  horses.  The  remounts  for  native  troops  are  pur- 
chased full-grown,  and  the  number  bought  in  1899  was  1,763. 
There  were  also  purchased  1,571  mules  for  the  English  troops 
and  1,281  for  the  natives,  mainly  for  purposes  of  transpor- 
tation.     Special   committees   are   sent  to  Australia   for  the 


GREAT   BRITAIN.  299 

purchase  of  remounts  for  the  artillery  and  part  of  the  cavalry. 
The  Indian  cavalry  received  a  valuable  addition  in  1890  in 
the  shape  of  a  camel  corps  which  by  1893  had  500  camels. 
The  animals  are  bred  in  a  government  establishment. 

CANADA. 

In  Canada  hardly  any  beginning  has  been  made  in  system- 
atic horse  breeding.  Manitoba,  however,  has  a  stallion 
register  in  which  some  250  stallions  have  been  entered,  and  a 
studbook  is  also  kept  for  the  foals  produced.  The  eastern 
provinces  have  little  or  no  importance  as  horse-breeding  dis- 
tricts, while  the  western  territories  in  some  localities  produce 
a  considerable  number  of  horses.  The  province  of  Alberta, 
especially,  may  be  regarded  as  the  center  of  the  horse-breed- 
ing industry,  the  winters  there  being  short  and  the  pastures 
suited  for  the  purposes.  The  breeding  of  heavy  horses  is 
scarcely  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  mining  districts.  The 
number  of  saddle  horses  produced  is,  on  the  contrary,  quite 
large,  being  estimated  at  30,000  head.  In  1892  a  number  of 
breeders  in  the  region  of  Alberta  sent  a  petition  to  the  gov- 
ernor general  of  Canada,  stating  that  a  large  percentage  of  the 
thousands  of  light  saddle  horses  raised  at  Alberta  would  be 
very  suitable  for  remounts  for  the  English  army;  that  much 
English  thoroughbred  blood  had  been  introduced  of  late,  and 
that,  as  a  consequence,  the  breed  had  been  materially 
improved.  The  only  thing  stated  to  be  lacking  was  a  market. 
Furthermore  it  was  claimed  that  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
road facilitated  transportation  and  warranted  the  establish- 
ment of  a  remount  depot  at  Calgary.  Finally,  it  was  asserted 
that  the  price  of  the  horses  was  very  low.  The  plan,  although 
at  first  regarded  favorably,  was  never  carried  out.  A  tour  of 
inspection  of  the  horses  was  made  by  two  remount  officers, 
who  decided  that  the  majority  of  the  horses  were  unsuited 
for  military  use.  This  opinion  was  coincided  in  by  the 
inspector  general  of  remounts.  A  German  horseman  by  the 
name  of  Hofaker,  on  the  other  hand,  gave,  after  a  visit  to  a 
ranch  at  Calgary,  a  much  more  favorable  opinion  of  these 
horses. 

In  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Manitoba  there  were  in 
1897,  613,670  and  100,274  horses,  respectively.  For  the  other 
provinces  statistics  are  lacking. 


300  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

CAPE  COLONY. 

The  number  of  horses  in  1897  was  357,960. 

In  Cape  Colony  and  Natal  together  there  were,  before  the 
Boer  war,  four  cavalry  detachments  with  about  1,200  horses, 
all  from  Cape  Colony. 

AUSTRALIA. 

The  total  number  of  horses  in  Australia  (including  New 
Zealand  and  Fiji)  in  1897  was  about  1,935,000,  distributed  as 
follows:  New  South  Wales,  498,034;  Queensland,  479,280; 
South  Australia,  164,820;  Victoria,  431,547  (in  1895);  West 
Australia,  62,222;  Tasmania,  29,898;  New  Zealand,  252,834. 

In  the  most  important  colony,  New  South  Wales,  there 
were  in  1898 : 


Heavy  draft  horses. 
Light  draft  liorses  - 
Saddle  horses 


Thoroughbred. 


18,473 
13, 758 
26, 338 


Ordinary. 


125,234 
108, 308 
174, 702 


The  prices  are  very  low.  Heavy  draft  horses  bring  only 
$47.60  at  auction  in  New  South  Wales;  in  West  Australia 
from  $4.75  to  $9.50  more.  Saddle  horses  cost  about  $28.60, 
only  the  best  (the  Indian  remounts)  coming  to  $71.40.  The 
exports  are  inconsiderable,  amounting  to  1,865  horses  in  1897, 
of  which  1,189  went  to  India.  As  England  has  been  pur- 
chasing a  great  number  of  remounts  every  year  in  Australia, 
interest  has  been  awakened  in  the  breeding  of  a  stronger  sad- 
dle horse  than  formerly. 

As  there  is  no  standing  army  there  is  no  remount  service. 
Each  colony,  however,  has  a  few  batteries  of  permanent 
artillery,  for  which  the  necessary  horses  are  bought  in  open 
market.  There  are  also  a  few  regiments  of  volunteer  cavalry, 
partly  lancers  and  partly  mounted  infantry — a  sort  of  militia. 
Each  volunteer  has  to  secure  his  own  remount.  Australia  is 
an  important  source  for  remounts,  not  only  for  the  British 
colonial  forces,  but  also,  to  an  extent  not  yet  appreciable,  for 
mounted  troops  of  other  powers,  particularly  those  in  East 
Asia,  Good  thoroughbreds  are  imported  to  a  great  extent 
from  England  to  improve  the  Australian  breeds.  An  excel- 
lent half-bred  saddle  horse  is  raised  in  New  South  Wales  and 
Victoria. 


V 

I 


GREAT  BRITAIN.  301 

NEW   ZEALAND. 

In  New  Zealand  the  method  of  breeding  is  in  general  the 
same  as  in  Australia,  but  the  industry  has  reached  a  higher 
stage  than  in  the  latter  country.  The  number  of  horses  in 
1898-99  was  258,649,  having  increased  by  5,412  since  1897-98. 
The  breeding  stallions  in  service  in  1898-99  were  as  follows: 
Thoroughbreds,  509;  hunters  and  hackneys,  134;  trotters, 
237;  light  draft  stallions,  409;  pack  horses,  780;  ponies,  169; 
asses,  26.  The  total  number  of  mares  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses in  the  same  year  was  17,835.  No  government  aid  is 
afforded  to  the  horse-breeding  industrj\  Draft  horses  cost 
$18  to  $30  each,  saddle  horses  and  coach  horses,  $7  to  $25  each. 
In  1898  there  were  exported  3,210  horses,  of  which  2,639  went 
to  New  South  Wales  and  116  to  Bengal. 


VIII.-ITALY. 


[Reported  by  Capt.  T.  Bentlcy  Mott,  Artillery  Ccjrps,  Uinte<]  States  Military  Attache  at  Paris.] 


What  follows  applies  to  horses  in  Italy.  The  few  that  are 
required  for  service  in  the  Italian-African  colonies  are  bought 
in  Africa. 


HORSE    AND    MULE    CENSUS. 


The  latest  figures  are  the  following ; 


Total  in  Italy 

Total  in  the  army,  including  officers'  horses 

Total  in  the  cavalry,  including  officers'  horses 

Total  in  the  artillery  and  engineers,  including  officers'  horses 

Other  services 

Additional  number  required  in  case  of  mobilization  for  war,  to 
be  brought  or  requisitioned  in  Italy 


Uorses. 


Mules. 


750,000       330,000 


Horses  and 
mules. 


1,080,000 
47,347 
21,251 
14, 74(> 
11,350 

217,000 


IMPORT   AND    EXPORT    DUTIES. 

These  duties  are  so  insignificant  that  it  may  be  said  that 
practically  there  are  no  import  or  export  duties  on  horses  in 
Italy. 

YEARLY    PURCHASES. 

The  average  number  of  horses  bought  each  year  by  the 
remount  depots  is  3,680.  About  600  more  are  bought  directly 
by  the  regiments.  The  cavalry  takes  about  2,600,  the  artil- 
lery about  1,200. 

PRICES. 

Cavalry,  from  S96.oO  to  $193  for  troop  horses;  artillery, 
$193  for  wheel  and  $164.05  for  lead  horses;  mules  an  average 
of  $173.70.  These  jDrices  include  the  cost  of  transportation 
to  the  destination 

PERCENTAGE   OF   LOST    AND    CONDEMNED    ANNUALLY. 

In  the  artillerj^  this  loss  is  estimated  at  10  per  cent;  in  the 
cavalry  it  is  somewhat  greater.  In  the  cavalry,  horses  ad- 
judged unfit  for  active  service,  but  still  capable  of  doing  less 

(303) 


304  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

exacting  work,  are  transferred  to  the  train  or  sold  to  infantry 
officers  at  low  rates. 

The  average  number  of  years  that  horses  are  retained  in 
service  is:  cavalry,  12;  artillery,  13;  mules  and  draft  horses, 
15  years. 

METHOD   OF    SUPPLY    AND    SPECIFICATIONS. 

All  animals  are  bought  in  the  market,  none  are  raised  on 
government  farms. 

CAVALRY. 

Horses  are  bought  for  the  remount  service  of  the  cavalry 
by  boards  sent  out  in  the  spring  from  the  different  remount 
depots.  The  regiments  are  also  authorized  to  buy  horses 
between  4  and  8  years  directly,  provided  it  is  established 
that  they  are  raised  in  Italy. 

The  cavalry  remount  depots  are  under  the  direction  of  a 
colonel  in  the  cabinet  of  the  minister  of  war. 

In  the  matter  of  getting  suitable  horses  much  is  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  horse  board,  and  the  specifications  are  very 
general  in  their  nature.  Horses  bought  for  the  cavalry  may 
be  mares  or  geldings,  of  any  color,  between  2  and  3  years 
old,  showing  the  requisite  breeding  and  conformation.  Lan- 
cers' horses  should  be  from  15^  to  16  hands  high;  light- 
cavalry  horses  from  14^  to  15^  hands  and  weigh  about  880 
pounds. 

These  horses  as  soon  as  bought  are  sent  to  the  raising- 
depots,  where  they  are  kept  until  -i^  years  old,  when  they 
are  sent  to  the  regiments.  At  these  depots  they  are  not 
seriously  trained,  but  only  handled  and  given  sufficient  exer- 
cise to  keep  them  in  good  health.  The  training  is  all  done 
in  the  regiments.  There  are  six  of  these  raising  depots,  four 
on  the  peninsula  and  two  in  the  islands. 

A  good  number  of  English  thoroughbred  stock  is  bought. 
In  the  islands  they  get  a  strain  of  Arabian  blood  that  has 
come  down  from  ancient  times. 

ARTILLERY. 

Horses  and  mules  for  the  artillery  must  be  mares  or  geld- 
ings, of  any  color  except  gray,  between  4|  and  8  years  old, 
must  weigh  about  1,100  pounds,  and  must  have  a  good  dis- 
position, and  the  breeding  and  conformation  necessary  for  the 
service  in  view.     Horses  for  field  batteries  and  horse  batteries 


ITALY. 


305 


slioiild  all  have  generally  the  same  qualities  as  those  demanded 
of  wheelers.  Mules  must  be  good  for  the  pack  service  of 
mountain  artillery. 

Horses  of  any  blood  are  procured  by  purchase,  the  chief 
foreign  races  being  American,  French,  or  German;  some 
French  mules  are  also  bought.  The  proportion  of  males  and 
females  should  be  about  equal.  Horses  should  be  from  14f 
to  16^  hands  high;  mules  from  14:p  to  15f. 

Boards  of  artillery  officers  with  a  veterinarian  buy  all  the 
horses  and  mules  for  the  artillery  and  engineers. 

BRANDING. 

Horses  and  mules  are  branded  with  hot  iron  on  the  left  hip. 
The  mark  is  a  cross  and  the  number  of  the  regiment. 

VACCINATION. 

Rarely  practiced ;  against  anthrax  the  Pasteur  virus  is 
occasio  lally  used. 

SHOEING. 

The  method  known  as  hot-shoeing  is  practiced,  the  hot  shoe 
being  apx)lied  to  the  hoof  before  being  quenched  and  set.  The 
Italian  model  of  hand-forged  shoe  is  used  exclusively. 

FORAGE. 

The  composition  of  the  forage  allowance  is  as  follows : 


Ordinary  ration 

In  cantonments 

On  the  march 

While  traveling  by  rail 


11.02 
1 1 .  U-A 
11.02 
11.02 


Compressed  hay  is  very  rarely  used. 


STUDS. 

The  army  has  at  Persamo  one  small  breeding  establishment 
intended  to  distribute  among  raisers  brood  mares  of  good 
blood.     This  has  been  established  very  recently. 

However,  separate  from  the  army,  seven  stallion  depots  are 
kept  by  the  state  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging,  throughout 


306  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

tlie  country,  the  raising  of  well-bred  horses.  These  estah- 
lishnaents  have  GOO  stallions.  Private  stallions,  before  they 
are  permitted  to  serve,  have  to  be  submitted  to  inspection  and 
approval  of  a  government  board.  The  services  of  the  govern- 
ment stallions  cost  generally  from  $2.31  to  $7.72  per  mare 
served,  thougli  there  are  a  few  unusually  fine  animals  for 
whose  services  $38.00  to  $115.80  or  more  is  23aid.  Thus  the 
Italian  government  bought  Melton,  the  winner  of  the  Epsom 
Derby  of  1885,  and  his  services  cost  $193  per  mare. 

The  majority  of  these  state  stallions  are  full  or  half  blood 
English  or  Arabian  and  some  hackneys,  Clydesdales,  and 
Brabants. 

officers'    HORSES. 

In  order  to  assist  mounted  officers  in  the  acquisition  of  good 
service  horses,  a  certain  number  of  mounts  are  distributed 
each  year,  or  advances  of  money  made  for  the  purchase  of 
mounts.  Such  horses  are  denominated  "cavalli  de  agevo- 
lezza."     They  are  divided  into  the  following  categories: 

SPECIAL. 

Category  A. — Horses  for  general  officers. 

Category  B. — Horses  for  general  officers,  for  general  staff 
officers,  for  cavalry  officers,  and  for  artillery  officers  entitled 
to  the  horse  allowance  of  $54.60. 

ordinary. 

Category  1. — Horses  for  general  staff  officers;  cavalry 
officers;  artillery  officers;  colonels  and  lieutenant  colonels 
commanding  corps;  and  chiefs  of  service  of  infantry,  engi- 
neers, the  sanitary  corps,  the  commissariat,  and  the  military 
veterinary ;  but  not  for  infantry  staff  officers. 

Categories  2  and  3. — Horses  for  officers  of  any  grade  in 
the  infantry,  engineers,  the  sanitary  corps,  the  commissariat, 
and  the  military  veterinary  service. 

The  greatest  debt  which  an  officer  may  incur  for  a  horse 
furnished  by  the  state,  or  for  advances  made,  may  not  exceed 
$390  for  a  general  officer  or  a  colonel  holding  the  post  of  a 
major  general,  $292.50  for  an  officer  entitled  to  a  horse  allow- 
ance of  $78  and  more,  $224  for  an  officer  entitled  to  a  horse 
allowance  of  $6^.30,  $195  for  an  officer  entitled  to  a  horse 
allowance  of  $54.60. 


ITALY.  307 

In  special  cases  tlio  minister  may  authorize  an  officer  to 
exceed  the  maximum  limits  mentioned  above.  In  such  a  case 
an  officer,  in  addition  to  the  horse  allowance,  must  have 
deducted  from  his  pay  each  month  61. 04  for  each  $48.75  or 
fraction  thereof  until  the  debt  has  come  within  the  limits 
mentioned.  These  horses,  to  whatever  category  they  may 
belong,  must  be  paid  for  within  three  years.  After  the  last 
payment  the  horse  becomes  the  property  of  the  officer.  When 
such  a  horse  becomes  unfit  for  service  on  account  of  physical 
defects,  infirmities,  or  vices,  the  permanent  council  of  admin- 
istration, as  well  as  that  of  the  regiment  to  which  the  officer 
belongs,  assisted  by  a  veterinarian,  examines  the  horse  and 
gives  authorization  for  its  sale,  the  proceeds  to  be  paid  to  the 
remount  service  if  the  debt  has  not  yet  been  liquidated. 

Horses  belonging  to  the  special  category  A  are  drawn  from 
those  of  the  cavalry  school,  recognized  to  be  in  sound  condi- 
tion, of  good  disposition,  well  broken,  and  from  7  to  12  years 
old,  and  are  selected  by  a  commission  composed  of  two 
general  officers,  and  one  superior  veterinary  officer.  This 
commission  fixes  the  prices,  which  must  not  exceed  $307.50 
per  horse. 

Special  category  B  horses  are  between  4^  and  7  years  old, 
and  are  acquired  either  abroad  or  from  the  studs.  In  the 
former  case  their  price  does  not  exceed  $307.50  each.  In 
the  latter  case  they  have,  according  to  the  price  established 
by  the  depot  council  of  administration,  a  value  of  from  $224 
to  $202.50  each. 

Horses  of  the  ordinary  categories  are  selected  in  the  cav- 
alry regiments  by  commissions  nominated  and  presided  over 
by  the  commander  of  the  brigade  and  composed  of  one  field 
officer,  two  subaltern  officers,  and  one  veterinary  officer  for 
each  regiment. 

The  horses  are  classed  as  follows : 

First  category,  those  from  5  to  0  years  of  age. 

Second  category,  those  from  0  to  12  years  of  age. 

Third  category,  those  of  12  years  of  age  and  more. 
The  minimum  height  of  the  horses  is : 

For  the  first  category,  14f  hands. 

For  the  second  and  third  categories,  14|  hands. 
The  cost  is  as  follows : 

First  category,  between  $224  and  $175.50. 

Second  category,  between  $165.75  and  $00.50. 

Third  category,  $87.75  and  lower. 


308  KEMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

The  horses  procured  on  the  market  for  money  advanced  are 
entered  in  the  i)roper  category  and  are  assigned  as  follows : 
First  category,  i-year-olds  (thoroughbreds  may  be  3-year- 
olds)  to  9-year-olds  and  of  a  value  not  under  $175.50. 
Second  category,  from  5  to  12  years  and  of  a  value  not 

under  $96.50. 
Third  category,  from  5  to  l-t  years  and  of  a  value  not 
under  $58.50. 
The  height  must  be  between  14^  and  15^  hands  for  officers 
entitled  to  second-grade  rations,  exception  being  made  for 
officers  over  5  feet  9  inches  in  height  who  may  procure  horses 
15f  hands  high.     Officers  entitled  to  forage  of  the  first  grade 
have  mounts  between  15^  and  15f  hands  high. 

The  horses  procured  on  the  market  by  general  officers  for 
money  advanced  are  entered  into  one  of  the  two  above- 
mentioned  categories,  according  to  age,  value,  and  height. 

The  advances  of  money  for  the  acquisition  of  horses  come 
generally  from  the  treasury  of  the  corps  to  which  the  officers 
belong  or  from  the  units  in  which  they  serve. 

ASSIGNMENT   OF   HORSES   TO   SUBALTERN   CAVALRY   OFFICERS. 

Thirty-four  horses  in  each  cavalry  regiment  are  assigned 
to  subaltern  cavalry  officers.  These  mounts  are  selected  from 
among  the  best  received  by  the  regiment  from  the  studs  or 
from  the  cavalry  remount  service.  These  horses,  called 
chargers,  are  entered  on  a  special  roll  (the  roll  of  chargers) 
and  are  distributed  among  the  squadrons.  The  chargers  are 
not  branded,  and  are  not  subject  to  the  regulations  for  troop 
horses  with  regard  to  uniformity  of  dimensions  and  cut  of 
the  tail.  Chargers  are  obligatory  for  subaltern  officers  but 
optional  for  captains  and  field  officers. 

A  corps  commander  may  permit  a  lieutenant,  applying 
for  such  permission,  to  turn  in  the  charger  received  from  the 
state  and  substitute  for  it  one  of  his  own. 

A  newly  appointed  second  lieutenant  who  has  graduated 
from  a  military  school  must,  before  entering  the  cavalry 
school,  join  the  regiment  to  which  he  has  been  assigned,  and 
there  the  commander,  taking  into  account  the  build,  the  apti- 
tude, and  even  the  wishes  of  the  officer,  assigns  him  a  horse 
from  among  the  available  chargers  of  the  regiment. 

The  charger  is  used  only  in  the  service  and  on  such  occa- 
sions  outside   the    service   which    the   commander   believes 


I 


ITALY.  309 

convenient.  It  may  be  kept  in  the  stable  of  the  officer  to 
whom  it  has  been  assigned. 

The  expenditure  for  bedding  and  shoeing  for  officers' 
mounts  is  charged  to  the  fund  assigned  for  those  purposes 
for  troop  horses. 

A  corps  commander,  for  the  good  of  the  service  or  on  rec^uest 
of  the  interested  parties,  may  authorize  officers  to  turn  in 
horses  assigned  them  and  take  others  from  those  available  in 
the  regiment. 

The  chargers  are  dropped  from  the  roll  of  officers'  horses 
after  six  years,  and  are  then  carried  as  troop  horses  and  may 
be  selected  for  sale  on  installments  of  the  second  and  third 
categories.  If,  however,  a  horse,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
officer  to  whom  assigned,  shows  special  aptitude  for  continu- 
ation in  the  service  as  a  charger,  the  commander  may  leave 
him  on  the  roll  for  another  term.  The  commander  may  have 
the  horse  dropped  from  the  roll  before  the  expiration  of  the 
six  years  if  the  animal  is  found  unfit  for  service  as  an  officer's 
horse.  Reports  of  such  cases  are  sent  to  the  minister.  If 
unfitness  results  from  carelessness  of  the  officer  to  whom  the 
horse  has  been  assigned,  the  council  of  administration  of  the 
corps  deducts  from  the  remount  allowance  of  the  responsible 
officer  the  sum  representing  the  depreciation  of  the  horse. 

The  annual  supply  of  chargers  to  the  corps  is  at  the  most 
one-sixth. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF   HORSES  TO   SUBALTERN  OFFICERS   OF   THE   FIELD  ARTILLERY 
AND  HORSE   ARTILLERY. 

In  field  artillery  and  horse  artillery  regiments  there  are 
a  number  of  horses  called  chargers,  taken  from  the  best  horses 
coming  from  the  studs,  the  ordinary  remount  service,  or  the 
special  remount  service  ordered  by  the  minister  for  this  pur- 
pose. These  horses  are  distributed  among  the  batteries  of 
these  regiments,  to  be  assigned  to  subaltern  officers  of  these 
regiments,  with  the  exception  of  the  train.  Some  of  these 
horses  are  assigned  also  to  the  staffs  of  these  regiments. 

The  chargers  are  entered  on  the  rolls  like  battery  horses 
with,  in  each  case,  the  special  note  as  charger,  to  which  is 

added,  "  Assigned  to on ,"  if  for  an  officer.     A  report 

is  made  to  the  minister  each  time  a  horse  is  entered  upon  the 
roll  or  assigned  to  an  officer.  The  chargers  are  not  branded 
and  are  not  subject  to  the  dispositions  in  force  with  regard 
to  battery  horses  referring  to  dimensions  and  cut  of  the  tail, 


310  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

but,  when  not  assigned  to  some  officer,  these  horses  serve  as 
saddle  horses  on  the  same  footing  as  the  battery  horses. 

The  use  of  these  horses  is  optional  to  captains  of  field  artil- 
lery and  horse  artillery  regiments,  but  obligatory  for  subal- 
tern officers.  The  commanders  of  corps  may,  however, 
authorize  subalterns,  requesting  permission,  to  substitute 
private  horses  for  the  chargers.  The  charger  is  used  only  in 
the  service  and  in  such  cases  outside  the  service  in  which  the 
commander  sees  fit  to  permit  its  use.  It  may  be  kept  in  the 
stable  of  the  officer  to  whom  it  has  been  assigned.  Expenses 
for  bedding  and  shoeing  for  officers'  mounts  fall  to  the  sum 
allotted  for  those  purposes  for  battery  horses.  The  forage 
rations  are  the  same  as  for  battery  horses.  The  care  of  the 
horse  is  provided  by  the  officer.  The  corps  commander,  for 
the  good  of  the  service  or  on  request  of  the  interested  par- 
ties, may  authorize  officers  to  change  chargers  for  others  from 
among  the  available  horses  of  the  same  category. 

When  a  charger  is  found  unfit  for  the  service  as  an  officers' 
horse,  he  is  carried  on  the  roll  as  a  battery  horse,  the  term 
"charger"  being  efi^aced.  A  report  to  the  minister  is  made 
of  such  cases.  If  the  unfitness  of  a  horse  for  service  is  pro- 
duced by  the  carelessness  of  the  officer  to  whom  he  has  been 
assigned,  the  council  of  administration  deducts  from  the 
remount  allowance  of  this  officer  the  sum  representing  the 
depreciation  of  the  horse. 


IX.-JAJ\\N. 

[Kioin-'ZuclituiMl  HciiiniitinuitrdcrMilitiii-PIVnU'iillc'iStiiiiti-ii,"'  by  Dr.  PiiuIOoIilbci-k,  Berlin,  l!Mll.] 


Japan  has  over  2,000,000  horses,  the  number  in  1895  having 
been  1,530,603,  exchisive  of  the  military  horses  used  in  the 
Chino-Japanese  war. 

Although  Japan  is  by  no  means  poor  in  horses,  their  quality 
leaves  much  to  be  desired.  The  animals  are  strong  enough 
in  the  fore  quarters,  but  weak  in  the  hind  quarters;  their 
shoulders  are  short  and  abrupt,  their  chests  narrow,  and  their 
size  ranges  only  from  13^  to  14i  hands;  they  are,  however, 
tough  and  enduring,  and  need  little  care. 

Of  recent  years  the  government  has  endeavored  to  improve 
the  breed  by  introducing  American,  Hungarian,  French,  and 
Persian  stallions.  As,  however,  the  crossing  was  done  at 
first  without  any  definite  aim,  no  success  was  attained,  but 
for  the  last  three  years  the  earnest  purpose  of  securing  a 
medium-size  saddle  horse  has  been  followed.  The  best  horses 
come  from  Yesso.     There  are  at  present  four  studs. 

The  obligation  has  been  placed  upon  officers  of  the  army  to 
keep  the  number  of  horses  corresponding  to  their  rank.  All 
higher  civil  officials  must,  moreover,  possess  two  horses  each. 

The  Japanese  army  was  increased  in  1896,  so  that  by  the 
end  of  1899  there  were  13  cavalry  regiments  with  65  squad- 
rons, and  13  field  artillery  regiments  with  79  batteries  (in  1900 
117  batteries).  Great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  procuring 
suitable  remounts  for  the  increased  organization.  A  horse 
board  is  sent  yearly  to  all  horse-breeding  sections  of  the 
country,  and  also  frequently  abroad,  especially  to  Australia. 
Principally  i-year-olds  were  purchased,  at  a  maximum  price 
of  $25  each.  The  greatest  difficulty  consists  in  securing  strong 
pack  animals  for  the  train  service,  for  which  purpose  the  gov- 
ernment has  recently  been  making  purchases  in  Australia. 
Thoroughbreds  are  now,  however,  being  imported  from  France 
in  order  to  improve  the  home  breed.  Animals  purchased  are 
placed  in  a  remount  depot  at  Tokyo. 

(311) 


X.-LATIN  AMERICA. 

[Fioni  "Zuoht  unii  Kcnioiitirung  lU  r  Milit-ii-I'fcidcjiller.Stiiatiii,  "  liy  l>i-.  I'aulGokllieck,  Bciliu,U)Ul. 


ARGENTINA. 


Tlie  number  of  horses  in  1894  was  4,4-47,000,  and  the  num- 
ber of  mules  483,000. 

The  immense  lierds  of  wild,  half-wild,  and  broken  horses 
which  roam  over  the  pampas  of  Argentina  are  the  descendants 
of  original  Spanish  breeds,  chief  among  which  was  the  Anda- 
lusian.  The  Argentine  horse  has  a  reputation  for  great 
endurance  and  for  requiring  little  care.  He  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a  good  animal  for  light  cavalry,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  imported  for  this  purpose  even  into  France.  The  price 
is  very  low,  ranging  from  $24  to  $48.  Imported  stock  is 
crossed  with  the  native  stock,  principally  for  the  production 
of  carriage  horses.  However,  the  majority  of  the  imported 
horses  are  bred  among  themselves.  They  consist  of  Arabs, 
English  thoroughbreds,  hunters,  hackneys,  Anglo-Normans, 
Morgans  from  the  United  States,  Trakehnens,  Oldenburgs, 
Hannoverians,  Orlofs,  Percherons,  Clydesdales,  Shires,  Cleve- 
lands,  and  Suffolk  Punch.  Of  late  the  most  popular  have 
been  the  Anglo-Normans,  Trakehnens,  and  Clydesdales. 

At  present  the  ratio  of  native  stock  to  crossed  breeds  is 
about  4,000,000  of  the  former  to  415,000  of  the  latter.  The 
number  of  pure  breeds  in  1895  was  15,577.  The  numbers 
exported,  in  1897,  were  13,615  horses,  16,390  asses,  and  16,317 
mules. 

In  November,  1899,  there  were  11  cavalry  regiments  of  4 
squadrons  each,  1  squadron  of  escorts  of  the  president,  4  field 
artillery  regiments,  and  2  mountain  artillery  regiments,  with 
a  total  of  about  4,000  horses  and  1,500  mules.  In  view  of  the 
above-mentioned  figures  it  is  evident  that  the  remounts  re- 
quired are  easily  secured  at  home.  A  horse  trained  for  riding 
costs  only  about  $7.14. 

Argentina  serves  as  a  source  of  remounts  for  many  Euro- 
pean   countries.      England    purchased   a   very   considerable 

(313) 


314  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

luiniber  of  horses  in  Argentina  for  the  South  African  war, 
and  for  some  years  has  had  a  permanent  remount-purchase 
commission  there,  which  as  early  as  1898  purchased  1,500 
horses  for  South  African  troops.  By  August,  1900,  a  total 
of  24,000  horses  had  been  delivered  for  England.  The  prices 
are  from  $100  to  $250  for  cavalry  horses,  $100  to  $200  for 
artillery  horses,  and  $70  to  $80  for  cobs.  According  to 
recent  reports,  Italy  contemplates  sending  to  Argentina  a 
similar  commission.  General  Valpini  having  been  sent  thither 
in  1899  to  study  matters  relating  to  horse  breeding. 

BRAZIL. 

The  principal  horse-breeding  localities  are  in  southern 
Brazil,  the  portion  inhabited  by  Germans.  There  is  j^rac- 
tically  no  horse  breeding  in  the  north.  The  small  native 
horses  are  raised  by  a  few  landowners  for  private  use,  but 
mules  are  generally  preferred  and  are  imported  in  consider- 
able numbers.  The  regions  where  mules  are  bred  are  in  the 
states  of  Minas  Geraes  and  the  southern  states.  There  is  a 
lack  of  good  military  horses.  A  movement  is  on  foot  looking 
toward  the  establishment  of  government  studs  in  Parana  and 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  There  are  6  regiments  of  field  artillery 
(2,562  horses),  6  battalions  fortress  artillery  (2,100  horses), 
and  14  regiments  of  cavalry  (0,020  horses),  making  a  total  for 
the  army  of  10,682  horses.  The  supply  of  remounts  is  now 
derived  from  the  h^rds  that  run  wild  on  the  prairies.  Gar- 
risons in  Brazil  are  so  far  apart  that  when  cavalry  is  trans- 
ferred from  one  to  another  the  horses  are  not  taken  along, 
but  new  remounts  are  secured  from  the  plains  nearest  the 
new  station. 

CHILE. 

This  country  had,  according  to  a  census  taken  in  1877, 
447,000  horses.  According  to  statistics  of  1885  the  number 
of  horses  foaled  per  year,  exclusive  of  Santiago,  is  54,000,  and 
it  is  estimated  that,  including  Santiago,  this  number  would 
be  60,000.  The  breeds,  like  those  in  Argentina,  are  of  degen- 
erate Spanish  stock.     Few  horses  are  bred  for  sale. 

When  well-bred  stock  was  introduced  into  Chile  it  was 
rather  with  the  object  of  breeding  it  pure  than  crossing  with 
the  native  breeds.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  English 
thoroughbreds,  the  Cleveland  bay  is  the  horse  that  has  been 


LATIN    AMERICA.  315 

bred  for  tlie  last  thirty  years  for  driving  purposes.  The  few 
Anglo-Normans,  Norfolk  trotters,  and  North  American  breeds 
that  have  been  introduced  have  not  attained  much  importance. 
The  government  neither  owns  nor  assists  any  stud  or  other 
establishment  of  the  kind.  On  the  other  hand,  private  owners 
readily  offer  the  services  of  their  valuable  stallions,  the  fees 
ranging  from  $5.80  up  to  $28.95. 

The  number  of  mules  and  asses  raised  is  considerable, 
though  scarcely  sufficient  for  home  needs. 

Chile  has  7  cavalry  regiments  with  4  scj[uadrons  each,  and 
each  regiment  has  at  present  370  horses.  There  is  an  escort 
squadron  with  250  horses,  1  regiment  field  artillery  with  500 
horses,  and  5  regiments  mountain  artillery  with  80  horses 
and  200  mules  each.  As  general-service  liability  was  in- 
troduced in  1900,  a  considerable  increase  in  the  establishment 
will  probably  take  place.  Henceforth  12  per  cent  of  the 
horses  are  to  be  replaced  yearly.  The  purchases  will  be 
made  by  the  adjutants  of  the  remount  section  of  the  great 
general  staff,  in  which  about  7  or  8  adjutants  and  30  men  are 
on  duty.  The  chief  of  the  remount  service  has  under  him 
also  the  veterinary  department.  There  is  a  kind  of  remount 
depot  established.  The  age  at  purchase  is  between  3  and  4 
years,  but  after  purchase  the  horses,  before  distribution  to 
the  troops,  remain  in  remount  stations  for  one  year.  The 
yearly  requirement  of  remounts  is  about  400,  and  the  average 
price  paid  is  $24.38.  Mounted  officers  may  purchase  horses 
from  the  remount  depot  for  $36.50  each,  and  may  sell  them 
in  case  they  become  unfit  for  service.  A  new  set  of  regulations 
is  being  prepared  after  the  model  of  the  German  "charger" 
system. 

MEXICO. 

The  principal  horse-breeding  region  in  Mexico  is  on  the 
plateaus,  where  some  of  the  large  studs  have  as  many  as  8,000 
or  10,000  horses  and  mules  each.     No  special  race  is  bred. 

The  Mexican  cavalry  consists,  since  1897,  of  14  line  regi- 
ments of  4  squadrons  each,  8  skeleton  regiments  of  2  sciuad- 
rons  each,  2  regional  squadrons,  and  1  sciuadron  of  army 
gendarmerie,  with  9,257  horses.  There  are  4  battalions  of 
field  artillery.  The  total  number  of  horses  in  the  army  is 
13,059.  It  is  manifest  that  the  purchase  of  the  necessary 
remounts  is  an  easy  matter. 


XI.-THE  NETHERLANDS. 

[From   ■Ziulit   ini.l   Ki-moiitining  dt-r  Jlilitiir-l'fcRlt-  ;ilk-i'  Staaten,"  by  Dr.   Paul  Gulilbeck 

Berlin,  1901.] 


Tlie  immber  of  horses  in  tlie  Netherlands  in  1896  was 
269,000. 

The  Dutch  army  has  3  regiments  of  cavalry,  of  5  field 
squadrons  and  1  depot  squadron  each,  1  orderly  squadron,  o 
regiments  of  field  artillery,  and  a  remount  depot.  The  total 
number  of  horses  is  5,259,  the  number  of  remounts  needed 
yearly  being  420.  All  purchased  horses,  before  being  turned 
over  to  the  troops,  are  kept  in  a  remount  depot  for  at  least  a 
year.  The  horses  for  the  cavalry  are  purchased  by  a  com- 
mission in  Ireland,  where  the  artillery  horses  formerly  were 
purchased.  Of  late,  however,  some  of  the  artillery  horses 
have  been  secured  at  home — in  1898  about  one-half.  The 
average  size  of  remounts  is  15^  hands,  the  age,  at  purchase, 
between  3  and  4  years,  and  the  average  price  about  $225.12. 
Although  officers  are  allowed  to  purchase  their  horses  from 
the  remount  depots  at  the  average  price,  and  subject  to  cer- 
tain conditions  regarding  disposal,  they  usually  jjrefer  to 
buy  their  mounts  of  dealers. 

DUTCH   COLONIES. 

Although  the  climate  of  the  East  Indian  archipelago  is  by 
no  means  adapted  to  horse  breeding,  still  these  regions  have 
a  large  number  of  horses,  especially  of  the  races  suitable  for 
draft  purposes  in  a  warm,  damp,  and  tropical  climate. 

Java  had,  according  to  the  last  census,  485,131  horses. 
The  Java  horse  is  a  small  animal,  12  to  12^  hands  high,  and 
thrives  best  in  a  mountainous  country.  There  is  also  a 
saddle  horse.  Most  of  the  horses  in  Java  are  imported  from 
the  other  islands. 

The  Dutch  troops  in  the  islands  have  1  cavalry  regiment 
with  700  horses;  4  field  batteries  with  75  horses  each,  or  300 
horses  in  all,  and  4  mountain  batteries  with  a  total  of  105 
horses  and  160  mules.     The  yearly  requirement  for  remounts 

(317) 


318  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

is  250  horses  and  15  mules.  Horses  for  the  remount  depot 
are  bought  from  1^  to  4  years  old ;  for  the  direct  supply  of 
the  artillery  and  the  cavalry  they  are  bought  full-aged,  but 
not  over  7  years  old.  The  size  with  trimmed  hoof  must  be  as 
follows:  1-i-  to  4  years  old,  12^  hands;  4  to  7  years,  12^  hands. 
Horses  from  Sumatra  may  measure  as  low  as  12  hands. 
Mules  for  the  mountain  artillery  are  bought  in  China.  Owing 
to  the  hard  usage  to  which  the  natives  put  young  horses,  the 
government  decided  to  establish  a  remount  depot  in  1888  in 
Java.  The  horses  are  kept  there  till  they  reach  the  age  of  5 
years,  when  they  are  turned  over  to  the  cavalry  or  artillery. 


Xir.— NORAVAY. 

[Keiioited  by  Lieut.  Col.  \V.  K.  Livermoiv,  Corps  of  Engineers,  I'nited  States  Military  Attache  at 
Copenhagen  and  Stockhohii.] 


The  Norwegian  government,  not  contemplating  the  inva- 
sion of  any  foreign  country,  has  organized  its  army  purely 
for  purposes  of  defense.  In  case  of  war  only  the  line  is  liable 
to  duty  abroad. 

Horses  for  the  army  are  supplied  in  three  different  ways : 

(a)  By  purchase  abroad,  "  original  horses  "  (stamheste)  250 
in  all ; 

(b)  The  rest  of  the  horses  in  time  of  peace,  the  so-called 
"quarter  horses"  (kvarterheste),  about  3,400  in  all,  are 
obtained  at  home  by  the  supply  establishment; 

(c)  The  horses  required  in  the  field  in  excess  of  those  avail- 
able in  time  of  peace  are  obtained  by  conscription. 

(a)    STAMHESTE. 

The  stamheste  are  purchased  in  Sweden  and  in  England  by 
the  remount  commissioners.  The  prices  vary  from  $134 
to  $268. 

Special  orders  about  inspections  are  issued  at  every 
purchase. 

The  cavalry  requires  about  182,  of  which  about  10  per  cent, 
namely,  18,  are  acquired  annually.  The  horses  are  generally 
half-blood  English.  They  are  mares  or  geldings.  The  color 
is  indifferent.  The  artillery  lequires  39  stamheste  at  the  rate 
of  about  4  a  year ;  the  requirements  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  cavalry.  During  the  past  few  years  about  25  horses  have 
been  bought  annually,  but  in  1899,  at  a  single  purchase,  80 
were  bought  for  the  orderly  squadron. 

There  is  no  government  breeding  establishment  in  Norwa3^ 
The  Norwegian  Government  is  making  investigations  with  a 
view  to  finding  an  economical  remount  system  based  upon 
the  stock  now  in  Norway.  One  of  the  three  stallions  now 
used  is  a  hackney,  the  two  others  are  Norwegian.  The  stal- 
lions are  lent  to  civilian  horse  raisers  with  the  condition  that 

(319) 


320  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OP    FOREIGN    ARMIES. 

should  the  foals  be  deemed  suitable  they  can  be  bought  at  a 
stipulated  price  when  they  reach  the  proper  age. 
The  import  duty  is  $13.40  per  horse. 

(6)    KVARTERHESTE. 

There  are  about  150,000  horses  in  the  country. 

There  are  in  the  army  3,400  kvarterheste,  200  officers' 
horses,  and  250  various,  outside  those  obtained  by  conscrip- 
tion. The  kvarterheste  are  distributed  as  follows :  cavalry, 
1,600;  artillery,  1,300;  other  branches,  250;  draft  horses  and 
pack  horses,  250. 

In  case  of  luobilization  for  war  about  14,000  more  would  be 
required.     These  they  expect  to  raise  by  conscription. 

The  annual  loss  is  about  10  per  cent. 

Cavalry  horses  and  artillery  horses  are  retained  in  the  serv- 
ice about  ten  years.  About  10  per  cent  are  required  annually. 
Draft  horses  and  pack  lorses  are  retained  about  twelve  years. 
Horses  for  cavalry  are  kept  at  the  remount  school  about 
ninety  days ;  those  for  artillery,  engineers,  and  train,  about 
forty-five  days.  Men  to  look  after  them  there  are  detailed 
from  the  organizations  to  which  the  horses  belong.  The 
horses  are  not  branded  and  are  never  vaccinated.  They  are 
shod  with  ordinary  horseshoes  with  calks.  The  number  of 
times  they  are  groomed  varies  with  circumstances. 

In  the  field  the  forage  allowance  is  14.33  pounds  of  oats  or 
barley,  9.92  pounds  of  hay  or  13.23  pounds  straw.  Com- 
pressed forage  is  used. 

The  native  Norwegian  horses  are  small  and  stout.  They 
are  well  formed  for  artillery  uses,  and  are  very  nimble  in 
climbing.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  Nor- 
wegian officers  with  regard  to  their  fitness  for  cavalry.  The 
opposition  to  them  comes  in  part  from  those  having  a  fond- 
ness for  shock  tactics. 


XITL-PERSIA. 

[Froin'-Zurhtuiiil  Romoiitininsiili-r  3IiIit;ir-I'f.  nU' allcrStiiiitcii,"  by  Dr.  PiUil  Goldbeck,  Bialiu,  1901.] 


Persia,  renowned  from  time  immemorial  for  her  horses, 
still  possesses  an  excellent  supply  of  them.  The  shah  and 
noblemen  of  the  country  each  keep  a  number  of  studs,  in 
which,  however,  only  the  horses  needed  by  the  court  are  bred. 
The  principal  wealth  of  horses  lies  with  the  tribes  of  nomads, 
who  follow  the  same  methods  of  horse  breeding  as  the  Arabs. 
The  Persian  thoroughbred  is  very  nearly  related  to  the  Arab, 
but  is  more  slender  in  build. 

The  Persian  cavalry,  excluding  the  three  Cossack  regiments 
under  Russian  command,  stationed  in  Teheran,  and  the  body- 
guard of  the  shah  (about  1,200  cavalrymen),  consists  of  irregu- 
lar troops.  There  are  said  to  be  125  squadrons  of  cavalry. 
The  artillery  is  said  to  consist  of  20  batteries.  In  the  cavalry 
each  trooper  is  obliged  to  furnish  his  own  horse  and  equipment. 
Russian  horses  have  been  introduced  experimentally  for  artil- 
lery purposes,  but  balk  on  long  grades.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
find  suitable  draft  horses  in  the  country.  Horses  become  un- 
serviceable usually  at  the  age  of  12  years,  though  Arabian 
horses  attain  ages  of  18  to  20  years  in  spite  of  their  rough 
usage.  The  ration  consists  of  G.61  pounds  of  barley  for  sad- 
dle horses,  8.82  to  11.02  pounds  of  barley  for  draft  horses,  and 
for  each  also  13.23  pounds  of  straw  and  (3.61  pounds  of  hay. 
The  barley  is  fed  half  in  the  morning  and  half  in  the  evening. 
In  May  all  dry  feed  is  withheld  from  the  animals,  and  they 
are  given  grass  and  hay  without  limit.  During  the  last  days 
of  May  a  little  barley  is  added  and  then  dry  forage  is  resumed. 

23555 21  (321) 


f 


XIV.-POHTUGAL. 

[From  "Zucbt  uml  RemontiiuugdL'iMilitai-I'fenlealleiStn;»teu,  "  bv  Pr.  Paul  Goltlbeck,  Berlin,  10(11. 


As  horse  breeding  receives  no  support  from  the  Govern- 
ment, it  has  reached  a  very  low  stage,  and  no  exact  census  of 
the  number  of  horses  and  mules  exists. 

Portugal  has  8  regiments  of  cavalry  (32  squadrons),  32  bat- 
teries of  field  artillery,  2  batteries  of  horse  artillery,  and  2  of 
mountain  artillery;  and  in  the  reserve,  8  groups  of  cavalry 
(16  squadrons)  and  4  sections  of  artillery  (16  batteries).  In 
the  standing  army  there  are  6,394  horses  and  4,34:2  mules,  and 
in  the  reserve  3,121  horses  and  1,992  mules;  total  9,515  horses 
and  6,334  mules. 

Remounts  are  purchased  for  the  army  by  a  general  remount 
commission,  consisting  of  a  colonel  of  cavalry  as  president,  a 
captain  of  cavalry,  a  lieutenant,  and  two  veterinarians.  The 
amount  to  be  expended  each  year  on  remounts  is  fixed  by  the 
war  minister.  The  prices  have  ranged  for  the  last  few  years 
between  $130.75  and  $138.38;  for  officers'  mounts  from  $181.20 
to  $214.42  are  paid.  The  age  limits  are  between  3  and  7  years. 
The  average  length  of  service  of  a  horse  is  calculated  at  ten 
years.  The  following  are  the  rules  with  regard  to  size : 
Horses  3  to  3i  years  old,  14i  hands;  4  years  old,  14^  hands; 
4  to  T  years,  14f  hands;  for  horses  of  generals,  and  general 
staff,  cavalry,  and  lancer  officers,  14f  hands ;  for  all  others, 
14|  hands;  mules  must  measure  14^  to  14f  hands,  according 
to  the  service  for  which  they  are  intended.  Seventy  per  cent 
of  the  horses  purchased  are  of  Spanish  origin,  the  remainder 
of  Portuguese. 

(323) 


XV.-RUSSTA. 

[Fniiu  "Zucbt  uud  lU-iiioiitiiunj;  iltr  Militiii-Pfcrde  allei-  Staaten,"  h_v  Dr.  Paul  Goliibeck,  Berlin, 
1901,  and  report  of  Capt.  S.  L'H.  Slocuni,  Eighth  Cavalry,  United  States  Military  Attache  at  St. 
Petersburg.] 


Russia  is  the  greatest  horse-producing  country  in  the  world, 
although  she  stands  behind  many  other  countries  if  the  num- 
ber of  horses  produced  is  considered  in  proportion  to  her  area. 
The  total  number  is  about  25,100,162,  of  which  over  21,000,000 
are  in  European  Russia. 

The  horses  of  Russia  are  for  the  greater  part  steppe  horses, 
i.  e.,  wholly  or  half-wild  horses,  ranging  in  bands  of  20  to  30 
each.  To  these  belong  the  horses  of  the  Kirghizes  and  Kal- 
muks,  those  of  the  Don  and  the  Caucasus,  and  a  part  of  the 
peasants'  horses. 

The  horses  of  the  studs  have  been  i^roduced  by  crossing 
with  English  and  other  breeds. 

Breeding  stallions  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  rural 
proprietors :  (1)  Those  stationed  in  the  government  studs 
are  occasionally  allowed  to  serve  mares  of  private  parties. 
(2)  There  are  established  so-called  breeding  stables  (rural 
studs),  from  which  stallions  are  sent  to  the  various  stations 
during  the  covering  period.  The  total  number  of  these  studs 
in  1893  was  33,  the  majority  of  which  had  their  chief  seat  in 
the  capitals  of  the  respective  governments.  (3)  Government 
stallions  may  be  assigned  to  so-called  "permanent  covering 
stations,"  tliat  is,  into  private  hands,  where  they  remain 
throughout  the  year  and  are  allowed  to  serve  free  of  charge 
(or  for  a  nominal  fee).  They  are  not  allowed  to  be  used  for 
work.  The  keeper  must  bear  the  expense  of  maintaining 
them  and  may  have  15  mares  of  his  own  served. 

Corresponding  to  the  generally  low  stage  of  the  breeding 
service,  the  number  of  mares  served  is  very  small.  In  1899 
the  number  of  stallions  in  the  depots  was  3,939  and  the  num- 
ber of  mares  served  only  89,219.  Of  the  stallions,  2,480  were 
in  the  agricultural  zone  of  Russia,  and  1,459  in  the  Caucasus, 
steppe,  and  Tomsk  depots.  The  number  of  stallions  is  not 
nearly  sufficient.  Eighty-nine  private  stallions  were  approved 
in  1889.  It  is  also  proposed  to  increase  the  number  of  gov- 
ernment stallions  and  establish  more  depots  in  1901.     Special 

(325) 


326  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF   FOREIC4N    ARMIES. 

attention  will  be  paid  to  the  Poltava  and  the  Yelizavetgrad 
depots,  as  they  are  the  principal  sonrces  of  prodnction  for 
cavalry  remounts. 

The  best-known  government  stud  is  that  of  Khrenovoye  on 
the  Don.  There  are  three  breeds,  namely,  trotters  (on  Janu- 
ary 1,  1900,  12  breeding  stallions,  119  brood  mares,  and  202 
foals) ;  hunters  (6  breeding  stallions,  28  brood  mares,  and  21 
foals) ;  and  draft  horses  of  foreign  races  (18  breeding  stallions, 
166  brood  mares,  and  186  foals).  The  remaining  government 
studs  are  all  in  the  district  of  Kharkof,  as  follows : 

Streletz. — The  stock  was  originally  Arab,  but  later  some 
Orlof  blood  was  added.  The  aim  was  the  jn'oduction  of  a 
light-cavalry  horse.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
suitable  Arab  stock,  English  thoroughbreds  were  eventually 
introduced  (in  1890),  but  it  is  now  proposed  to  discontinue 
them.  On  January  1,  1900,  there  were  15  breeding  stallions, 
152  brood  mares,  and  334  foals.  The  area  of  the  stud  is 
27,181  acres. 

LiMARESK. — The  original  aim  was  to  produce  a  light-cav- 
alry horse,  and  Arab  stock  was  first  bred.  In  1885-86  English 
thoroughbred  blood  was  introduced,  and  the  object  was 
changed  to  the  breeding  of  a  heavy  cavalry  horse.  It  is  now 
intended,  however,  to  discontinue  the  English  thoroughbred 
stock  and  breed  the  pure  Orlof-Rostopchin  saddle  horse.  The 
status  on  January  1,  1900,  was  14  breeding  stallions,  174  brood 
mares,  and  411  foals.     The  area  is  27,181  acres. 

Derkul. — English  thoroughbred  stock  is  bred  here,  the 
number  of  thoroughbreds  being  8  breeding  stallions,  45  brood 
mares,  and  04  foals.  The  number  of  private  mares  served 
yearly  at  Derkul  is  100,  at  a  fee  each  of  al)out  874  and  under. 
There  is  also  an  Arabian  (steppe)  section  which,  on  January 
1,  1900,  had  6  breeding  stallions,  39  brood  mares,  and  38  foals. 

Novo  Alexandrovsk. — The  mission  of  this  stud  in  1833 
was  the  production  of  a  cuirassier  horse,  and  much  English 
thoroughbred  blood  was  introduced.  Heavy  carriage  horses 
and  saddle  horses  are  produced.  The  status  is  10  breeding 
stallions,  171  brood  mares,  and  302  foals.  The  area  is  30,887 
acres. 

Janow. — This  is  the  only  government  stud  in  Poland. 
English  thoroughbred  stock  is  bred,  and  the  numbers  on 
hand  are  12  stallions,  12  thoroughbred  mares,  and  49  half- 
bred  mares.  The  foals  number  25  thoroughbreds  and  93 
half-breds. 


I 


RUSSIA. 


327 


The  numerous  private  stud's  follow  for  the  most  part,  as 
far  as  breed  is  concerned,  the  tendencies  of  the  government 
studs  of  their  respective  regions. 

The  number  of  animals  in  the  government  studs  was  as 
follows  on  January  1,  1900:  One  hundred  and  three  breeding 
stallions,  955  brood  mares,  1,780  foals,  151  draft  horses  and 
others;"  total,  3,002  head. 

The  total  receipts  from  government  studs  were  $141,371.10, 
and  the  expenditures  $1,115,142.37. 

There  were  exported  in  1899  from  Russia  59,448  horses, 
57,100  going  beyond  the  European  boundary,  436  to  Finland, 
and  1,912  beyond  the  Asiatic  boundary. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  regiments,  etc. , 
including  Cossacks : 


Europe, 
including 
Caucasus. 

Siberia, 

Turkestan, 

Amur. 

Field  troops : 
In  corps — 
Ca  val  ly — 

591 

367 
41 

36 

59 

17 
49 

6 

3'2 

AttilU'iy— 

11 

3 

Nut  ill  corps — 
Ciivalrv — 

Hcijinients         _   . 

10 

S(|Un<iroiis  Hiirl  sotiiias         _.         __ 

47 

Artillery— 

19 

Keserves; 

Caiires  of  the  cavalry  reserve  _ 

Artillerv,  batteries                    _                        _            .   . 

The  total  number  of  Cossack  sotnias  is  311,  which  number 
can  be  increased  in  war  to  1,000.  The  peace  establishment 
of  cavalry  horses  is  140,000;  in  the  war  establishment  this 
number  is  increased  to  350,000.  There  are  special  remount 
services  for  each  branch;  that  is,  one  for  the  regular  cavalry, 
one  for  the  artillery,  and  one  for  the  Cossacks.  The  total 
number  of  horses  in  the  army  is  175,000.  The  number  re- 
quired annually  is  17,500.  In  case  of  mobilization  350,000 
more  would  be  required. 

The  cavalry  troops  of  European  Russia  formerly  received 
their  mounts  entirely  through  remount  officers,  who,  in  con- 
sideration of  a  sura,  varying  from  $108.15  to  $154.50  for  each 
horse,  had  to  purchase  remounts  at  their  own  expense  and 
their  own  risk  and  deliver  them  in  a  serviceable  condition. 
They  were  really  to  a  certain  extent  wholesale  horse  dealers. 


3-^8 


REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 


There  were  at  first  no  official  remount  depots,  but  the  re- 
mount officers  had  private  depots  of  their  own  where  they 
kept  the  horses  bought  by  them  until  fit  for  service. 

The  age  limits  prescribed  are  from  3^  to  T  years.  The 
heights  are  as  follows :  For  guard  cuirassiers,  15^  to  16  hands; 
light  guard  cavalry,  15  to  15^  hands;  line  cavalry,  15  to  15^ 
hands;  guard  artillery,  15  to  15^  hands;  field  battery  saddle 
horses,  15  to  15:j  hands;  gun  horses,  11  to  15^  hands;  horse 
battery  saddle  horses  and  draft  horses,  15  hands.  Stallions, 
geldings,  or  mares  may  be  taken. 

The  above-mentioned  remount  system  was  found  very  de- 
fective, so  that  the  government  was  finally  compelled  to  take 
charge  of  the  service,  the  German  method  of  private  purchase 
and  remount  depots  being  introduced  as  a  tentative  measure. 
At  first  the  positions  of  remount  officer  were  discontinued  in 
Moscow  and  Kief,  those  in  other  places  being  continued. 
Since  January  1,  1901,  the  new  method  has  been  definitely 
adopted.  Two  kinds  of  remount  commissions,  permanent 
and  temporary,  have  been  established.  The  former  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  supreme  military  council  and  the  latter  by  the 
inspector  general  of  cavalry.  There  are  at  present  seven 
permanent  and  two  temporary  commissions.  Every  commis- 
sion consists  of  a  general  officer  as  president,  a  field  officer,  a 
veterinarian,  and  assistants.  Horses  bought  in  the  fall  must 
be  3^  to  5^  years  old,  and  those  bought  in  the  spring  from  4 
to  6  years.     The  following  prices  are  fixed  from  1901  to  1903: 


From  15^3  bauds  up.. 
Fniui  15  to  loVi  hand: 
From  U%  to  iS  Uaud 


Categorj-. 


I. 

11. 

Thorousrh- 

Thoroush- 

breil 

bred  witli 

without 

slight 

blemishes. 

blemishes. 

III. 

Partially 

thoivugh- 

brwi 

without 
blemishes. 


IV. 
Partially 
thorough- 
breil  with 

slight 
blemishes. 


$193. 12 
167.37 
141.62 


§167. 37 
141.62 
103.00 


8115.87 
103.00 
77.25 


Artillery  remounts  were  formerly  supplied  by  permanent 
remount  officers,  each  buying  for  the  artillery  in  his  own  dis- 
trict. It  was  only  in  certain  districts — Finland,  Moscow, 
Don  territory,  etc. — that  the  artillery  was  permitted  to  pur- 
chase remounts  independently.  In  these  an  officer  of  each 
brigade  was  charged  with  making  the  purchases,  and  a  com- 
mission detailed  to  approve  them.     Since  1S91  all  permanent 


RUSSIA.  329 

foot  batteries  and  horse  batteries  have  been  allowed  to  pur- 
chase their  remounts  independently.  The  amounts  they  are 
allowed  to  expend  for  this  purpose  per  horse  are  as  follows: 
Guard  batteries,  $144.20;  field  batteries  in  St.  Petersburg 
military  district,  8103;  in  military  districts  of  Kief  and 
Odessa,  §90.12,  including  all  expenses. 

Heretofore  all  the  Cossacks  have  been  required  to  jjrocure 
their  own  mounts.  These  troops  are  divided  into  three  bans, 
each  of  which  has  a  very  different  class  of  horse.  The  fol- 
lowing arrangement  has  been  made  to  improve  the  mounts 
of  the  Cossacks  of  the  first  ban,  who  are  gradually  acquiring 
a  standing  with  the  regular  cavalry.  Upon  the  discharge  of 
the  Cossacks  who  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  second  ban  in 
the  fall,  the  regiments  of  the  first  ban  may  exchange  their 
unserviceable  horses  for  serviceable  ones  by  paying  a  small 
sum  of  money. 

Up  to  1884  all  the  cavalry  officers,  as  well  as  most  other 
officers,  were  required  to  purchase  their  own  mounts.  This 
rule  is  still  in  force  for  the  guard  officers,  but  the  officers  of 
the  regular  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  receive  so-called 
"crown  horses"  from  among  the  service  horses.  A  second 
horse  ration  is  allowed  so  that  officers,  if  they  so  desire,  may 
keep  a  private  mount  besides.  Every  officer  of  mounted 
troops  may  purchase  a  service  horse  from  his  regiment,  but 
no  more  than  six  horses  per  regiment  may  be  sold  each  year. 
"  Crown  horses  "  remain  the  property  of  the  government  and 
may  be  used  only  in  the  service.  Since  October,  1899,  the 
obligation  to  keep  a  private  service  mount  has  been  extended 
to  officers  of  the  horse  artillery,  including  the  mountain  artil- 
lery. Officers  of  foot  troops  are  allowed  to  select  suitable 
horses  from  among  the  condemned  cavalry  horses,  for  which 
moderate  prices  are  charged. 

The  forage  ration  is  as  follows :  For  the  guard  cavalry 
(cuirassiers),  draft  horses  of  the  guard  artillery,  of  the 
officers'  reserve  school,  and  of  cadre  1  of  the  guard  cavalry 
reserve :  13^  pounds  oats,  10  pounds  hay,  and  4  pounds  straw. 
For  the  horses  condemned  from  the  guard  and  cavalry  regi- 
ments :  10  pounds  4^  ounces  oats,  10  pounds  hay,  and  4  pounds 
straw.  All  other  saddle  horses  of  the  guard  cavalry  and 
artillery,  of  guard  cadres  Xos.  2  and  3,  and  of  the  officers' 
schools:  12  pounds  oats,  10  pounds  hay,  and  4  pounds  straw. 

Cavalry  horses  undergo  one  year's  training  before  being 
turned  over  to  the  troops.  Each  regiment  has  a  depot  for 
this  purpose. 


XVI.-SPAIX. 

[From  "  Zuclitund  KeniontirungUerMilitar-PfeniealleiStaaten,"  by  I»r.  Paul  Goldbeck,  Berlin,  lUOl.] 


The  number  of  horses  in  1897  was  397,172.  Spain  raises 
a  great  number  of  asses  and  mules.  An  English  commission 
purchased  there  for  the  Boer  war  a  total  of  12,000.  They  are 
reported  to  have  proved  admirably  adapted  to  the  transpor- 
tation of  light  artillery  in  hilly  regions.  The  usual  price  of 
mules  reaches  as  high  as  $193. 

In  order  to  assist  horse  breeding  the  Spanish  government 
maintains  four  stallion  depots  of  100  animals  each,  and  three 
annexes  with  25  stallions  each.  The  stallions  kept  at  these 
depots  are  mostl}^  of  the  Spanish  race,  but  there  are  also 
Arabian  and  English  thoroughbreds,  the  latter  very  few  in 
number  and  poor  in  quality.  There  are  also  some  Norfolk, 
Percheron,  Anglo-Norman,  and  even  Anglo-Hispano- Arabs  in 
use.  In  order  to  aid  breeders  the  covering  fee  is  made  as  low 
as  $4.82,  and  in  some  regions  where  the  breeding  industry  is 
in  a  backward  state  no  fee  is  charged.  The  number  of  thor- 
oughbred stallions  in  Spain  in  1896-97,  according  to  the 
Spanish  studbook,  was  155  English,  19  Arab,  and  19  Anglo- 
Arab  stallions.  There  has  been  a  considerable  decrease  since 
1894-95. 

A  military  stud  has  been  established,  as  a  sort  of  experi- 
ment, in  the  province  of  Cordoba.  It  has  80  mares  of  the 
Spanish,  Anglo- Arab,  Anglo-Norman,  and  Percheron  races, 
as  well  as  4  breeding  stallions — 2  Spanish,  1  English  thorough- 
bred, and  1  Norfolk.  It  is  intended  to  raise  not  only  sires 
for  the  stallion  depots,  but  also  stallions  to  be  sold  at  cost 
price  to  breeders. 

Spain  has  28  regiments  of  cavalry  and  14  regiments  of 
reserve  cavalry,  9  remount  depots,  establishments,  etc.,  gen- 
darmerie, and  16  regiments  of  field  artillery  and  mountain 
artillery,  having  a  total,  including  other  branches  of  the 
service,  of  14,300  horses  and  mules. 

There  are  three  remount  purchase  commissions  for  cavalry, 
each  with  a  remount  depot  under  its  supervision.     In  these 

(B31) 


332  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

depots  the  colts  are  kept  until  4  years  old  before  being  turned 
over  to  the  regiments.  The  general  staff,  infantry,  artillery, 
engineers,  carbineers,  administrative  troops,  and  medical  corps 
purchase  their  horses  and  mules  ready  for  service.  The  artil- 
lery has  a  remount  commission  consisting  of  a  colonel,  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  major,  and  two  administrative  officers,  with 
headquarters  at  Madrid.  The  civil  guard  also  has  a  remount 
commission  of  its  own.  To  purchase  the  necessary  remounts 
the  commission  makes  tours  through  the  country.  Some 
remounts  are  bought  abroad.  All  draft  horses  for  the  artil- 
lery are  purchased  abroad,  principally  in  Belgium.  The 
requirements  of  remounts  are  as  follows :  Cavalry — age,  2  to 
4  years;  size,  14  to  15f  hands,  according  to  age.  Artillery — 
age,  4  to  7  years;  size,  15  to  15^  hands  for  saddle  animals,  15^ 
to  15f  hands  for  draft  animals,  and  14f  to  15i  for  officers' 
mounts.  Other  troops — age,  4  to  7  years;  size,  14f  to  15f 
hands  (in  the  civil  guard,  ISj  to  15f  hands).  The  length  of 
service  of  a  horse  is  reckoned  at  10  years. 

The  average  price  paid  for  horses  by  the  army  is  $106.15  for 
2-year-olds,  $168.87  for  3-year-olds,  $193  for  4-year-olds,  and 
$173.70  to  $386  for  trained  animals.  The  average  value  of  an 
Andalusian  saddle  horse  is  $289.50,  especially  valuable  speci- 
mens being  $400,  $600,  and  even  $800.  Light  draft  horses  are 
sold  at  $772  to  $1,158  per  team;  heavy  horses,  which  are  rare, 
from  $289.50  to  $386  each. 

General  officers  may  select  and  buy  their  horses  from  among 
the  cavalry  remounts,  at  cost,  but  never  for  less  than  $241.25 
each.  Field  and  company  officers  who  are  required  to  have 
mounts  receive  them  from  their  regiments,  but  must  pay  for 
them  a  certain  sum,  varying  according  to  the  grade  of  the 
officer,  from  $38.60  to  $135.10. 


XVII.-SWEDEN. 

[From  '•  Zucht  und  RemontirungderMilitai-PferiifiillciStaateii,"  by  Dr.  PauIGoldbeck,  Berlin,  1901.] 


The  number  of  horses  in  Sweden  in  1897  was  512,406. 

The  Swedish  Government  favors  the  horse-breeding  in- 
dustry in  every  respect.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  the  raising 
of  mi-litary  horses.  The  successes  are  such  that  the  peasantry 
not  only  furnishes  all  the  army  remounts  and  all  the  breeding 
stallions  needed  for  service  throughout  the  country  (except 
those  imported  to  keep  up  the  stock),  but  also  many  excellent 
remounts  for  Norway.  Formerly  the  government  maintained 
studs  of  its  own,  but  this  is  now  no  longer  necessary.  These 
studs  were  situated  as  follows:  At  Stromsholm,  until  1872; 
at  Flyinge,  until  1887  (English  thoroughbred  and  half-bred 
stock);  and  at  Ottenby,  in  Oland,  until  1892  (English  half- 
bred  stock).  The  first  and  second  mentioned  are  now  stallion 
depots.  The  number  of  stallions  at  Stromsholm  in  1899  was 
74  and  at  Flyinge  89,  besides  62  young  stallions  at  the  latter 
place.  Most  of  the  stallions  stationed  at  Stromsholm  and 
Flyinge  were  purchased  abroad — partly  in  England  and  partly 
in  Hannover.  Stallions  subsidized  by  the  government  are 
kept  by  a  great  many  private  owners. 

The  Swedish  permanent  troops  include  8  cavalry  regiments 
(5,300  horses),  and  11  batteries  of  field  artillery  and  mountain 
artillery.  The  total  number  of  horses  in  the  army  in  1900 
was  6,742.  In  case  of  mobilization  the  number  is  increased 
to  28,319,  which  are  all  at  hand.  The  yearly  number  of 
remounts  is  about  540.  All  remounts,  except  those  of  the 
indelta  cavalry,  are  purchased  through  a  remount  commission, 
consisting  of  a  chief,  a  veterinarian,  and  another  member. 
The  average  price  paid  is  $187.60,  but  it  is  intended  to  raise 
this  price.  The  remounts  must  be  between  3  and  7  years  of 
age,  and  must  not  be  under  14i  hands  high  measured  behind 
the  saddle.  A  peculiar  system,  similar  to  that  in  vogue  in 
Norway,  exists  for  the  indelta  cavalry,  for  which  certain 
landholders  are  required  to  maintain  remounts. 

(333) 


I 

4 


I 
i 


XVIII.-SWITZ  ER  LAND. 

[Reported  by  Maj.  G.  K.  Cecil,  Tbinl  Infaiitiy.  I  iiiteii  8tntis  Military  Attache  at  Bern.] 


The  Swiss  system  of  supplying  horses  for  military  pur- 
poses, like  the  entire  Swiss  militia  system,  is  unique.  In  the 
first  place,  no  recruit  is  assigned  to  the  mounted  service  until 
he  has  produced  conclusive  evidence  of  his  ability  to  own 
and  care  for  a  horse.  The  horses  are  bought  by  the  govern- 
ment and  trained.  The  recruit  is  permitted  to  select  one  at 
the  appraised  value,  and  pays  to  the  government,  at  the  time 
the  horse  is  assigned  to  him,  one-half  the  amount.  He  takes 
the  horse  to  his  home  and  uses  him  as  his  private  property, 
but  must  keep  him  in  good  condition  and  ready  for  inspec- 
tion. The  recruit  must  report  with  this  mount  every  time 
he  is  called  to  service.  The  government,  at  the  end  of  each 
year,  refunds  to  him  ten  per  cent  of  the  amount  he  has  paid; 
that  is,  ten  per  cent  of  half  the  appraised  value  of  the  horse, 
so  that  at  the  end  of  his  ten  years'  service  in  the  elite,  all  his 
money  has  been  returned  to  him,  he  has  had  the  use  of  the 
horse  for  ten  years,  and  the  animal  now  becomes  his  private 
property,  which  he  may  sell  or  otherwise  dispose  of. 

The  recruit  may  furnish  his  own  mount,  which  is  inspected 
and  appraised,  after  which  the  government  pays  the  soldier 
half  the  appraised  value  of  his  horse,  and  thereafter  ten  per 
cent  of  the  other  half  annually  for  ten  years.  If  the  horse 
dies  in  the  meantime,  or  becomes  unfit  for  service,  the  bal- 
ance is  refunded  to  the  soldier,  who  then  selects  another  horse 
from  the  depot  on  the  same  conditions,  except  that,  when 
the  soldier  is  transferred  to  the  landwehr,  the  horse  does  not 
become  his  private  property,  but  must  be  returned  to  the 
depot.  On  returning  his  mount  to  the  depot  the  soldier 
receives  the  balance  of  the  amount  paid  by  him.  The  same 
rule  applies  to  the  horses  for  both  officers  and  enlisted  men, 
though  the  officers,  in  selecting,  are  not  limited  to  the  cavalry 
remount  depot,  as  there  is  a  horse  rdgie  at  Thun  supplying 
a  higher  grade  of  horses,  especially  for  officers.     This  regie 

(335) 


330  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS    OF    FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

also  trains  and  supplies  horses  for  the  field  artillery.  These 
horses  are  purchased  during  the  first  months  of  the  year,  and 
are  used  during  that  year  at  the  recruit  schools  for  light 
artillery.  In  the  autumn  they  are  appraised  and  sold  at 
auction,  to  natives  only,  on  condition  that  they  be  well  cared 
for  and  returned  to  the  recruit  stations,  for  use  in  a  recruit 
school,  at  such  times  as  called  for  each  year,  for  the  three 
following  years.  After  that  they  become  the  absolute  prop- 
erty of  the  purchaser.  If  the  bids  on  any  horse  are  less  than 
his  appraised  value  he  is  not  sold,  but  is  held  for  a  future 
auction.  For  the  use  of  his  horse  at  recruit  schools,  etc.,  a 
purchaser  is  paid,  while  the  animal  is  in  service,  from  two  to 
four  francs  per  day.  In  this  way  the  government  has,  for 
use  in  the  instruction  of  the  light-artillery  recruits,  and  for 
service  during  the  cours  de  repetition,  as  well  as  at  other 
times,  a  supply  of  fairly  well  trained  horses.  All  horses  for 
the  artillery  and  trains,  whenever  required,  are  hired  from 
civilians.  The  owners  are  paid  the  rates  established  by  the 
government.  The  horses  are  examined  by  a  board  of  veter- 
inary surgeons  three  times,  namely,  upon  delivery,  then  two 
days  after  delivery,  and,  finally,  upon  being  returned  to  the 
owners.  Upon  the  reports  of  this  board  damages  are  paid  by 
the  government.  Besides  the  100  horses  bought  each  year 
for  the  regie  and  intended  for  the  artillery,  and  for  officers, 
there  are  purchased  about  800  horses  every  year  for  the 
cavalry. 

Last  year  there  were  bought  for  the  cavalry : 

Foreign  horses 793 

Swiss  horses  ..- 4 

Horses  furnished  by  soldiers 5 

Horses  furnished  by  soldiers  to  replace  their  lost  horses 2 

Total 804 

The  foreign  horses  are  bought  and  inspected  by  a  board, 
which  is  composed  of  the  chef  d'arme,  chief  veterinarian,  and 
usually  also  the  commandant  of  the  depot,  and  which,  to 
make  the  purchases,  is  sent  abroad.  Of  late  years  the  horses 
have  been  bought  in  Ireland,  northern  Germany,  or  Hungary, 
as  the  markets  have  seemed  most  favorable. 

Specifications  for  Horses. — Active  temperament;  neck 
shapely  and  of  medium  length;  withers  prominent;  barrel 


SWITZERLAND.  337 

short;  back  straight;  loins  arched  and  muscled;  the  croup 
substantial  and  approaching  the  horizontal;  chest  large  and 
deep ;  the  legs  and  fetlocks  strong ;  unbound  tendons ;  good 
feet.  White  horses  of  too  striking  appearance  are  rejected, 
unless  the  purchase  is  justified  by  excellent  qualities.  The 
height  should  be  not  less  than  15  hands  nor  more  than  15| 
hands;  age  not  less  than  4  years  nor  more  than  6  years. 
Mares  and  geldings  are  accepted. 

The  horses  are  shipped  to  the  depot  at  Bern,  where  they 
become  acclimatized  before  they  are  given  any  hard  work. 
They  are  then  given  a  course  of  training  involving  about  four 
months'  time,  in  which  they  are  exercised  at  the  walk,  trot, 
gallop,  and  in  jumping  hurdles.  They  are  trained  also  to 
work  in  harness,  that  they  may  be  useful  to  the  owner  in 
agricultural  labor.  For  this  purpose  the  necessary  number 
of  trainers  is  employed.  When  the  training  is  completed  the 
horses  are  inspected  by  the  chef  d'arme,  the  chief  instructor, 
and  the  chief  veterinarian.  Any  that  are  found  fractious, 
near-sighted,  blind,  wind-broken,  stiff,  or  incurably  diseased 
are  returned  to  the  depot  either  for  treatment,  or,  if  found 
permanently  disqualified  for  service,  for  sale.  Horses  when 
first  purchased  are  branded  on  the  near  fore  foot;  those 
accepted  for  assignment  to  recruits  are  branded  also  with 
the  year  and  the  federal  cross  on  the  off  side  of  the  neck  and 
with  the  number  on  the  near  side  of  the  neck.  Horses  con- 
demned to  be  sold  are  branded  on  the  left  ear. 

.The  horses  intended  for  enlisted  men  are  arranged,  accord- 
ing to  appraised  values,  into  four  classes.  The  classes  cor- 
respond to  four  values,  S312,  $373,  $234,  and  $195.  The 
horses  intended  for  officers  are  appraised  at  $351.  These 
values  are  calculated  to  cover  the  first  cost  of  the  horses,  the 
transportation,  acclimatization,  and  training,  in  other  words, 
to  cover  the  expenses  of  the  remount  depot. 

A  descriptive  book  accompanies  each  mount  issued.  This 
book  must  be  presented  at  all  subsequent  inspections  of  the 
horse.  The  inspector  notes  therein  the  horse's  condition  and 
any  other  pertinent  remarks. 

Provision  is  made  for  returning  horses  to  the  depot  for 
further  training  or  for  exchange  when,  after  reasonable  trial, 
they  are  found  unsound,  vicious,  or  in  any  other  way  unfit 


338  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

for  the  military  or  home  use  of  the  holder.  When  a  soldier 
is  "unable  to  keep  his  horse  he  is  permitted  to  transfer  him  to 
some  responsible  party,  who  assumes  the  care  of  the  animal 
under  the  conditions  prescribed  for  the  soldier.  After  ten 
years  this  party  becomes  the  absolute  owner  of  the  horse. 

No  figures  are  obtainable  at  the  military  department  as  to 
the  percentage  of  annual  loss,  but  it  is  believed  that  this  per- 
centage is  very  small,  and  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
horses  assigned  to  recruits  are  serviceable  during  the  entire 
10-year  term  of  service  in  the  dlite,  as  well  as  useful  a  num- 
ber of  years  thereafter.  The  Swiss  are  very  kindly  disposed 
toward  animals  and  take  elegant  care  of  their  horses  and 
cattle.  The  system  for  the  purchase,  and  treatment  of  horses 
for  the  r^gie  at  Thun  is  approximately  the  same  as  for  the 
cavalry  remount  depot  at  Bern.  Greater  latitude  is  allowed 
in  procuring  fine  horses  for  officers.  Those  horses  intended 
for  the  light  artillery  are  given  less  training  under  the  saddle. 
The  receipts  from  the  rdgie  about  balance  the  expenditures. 

As  it  owns  few  horses  and  keeps  those  of  the  army  largely 
in  the  hands  of  private  citizens,  the  government  has  no  adopted 
method  as  to  shoeing.  So  far  as  my  observation  goes  the 
shoes  are  similar  to  those  in  our  service. 

There  is  no  government  stud  under  the  military  depart- 
ment, but  there  is  one  at  Avenches  under  the  agricultural 
department.  The  purpose  of  this  stud  is  the  improvement  of 
the  breed  of  Swiss  horses.  Ninety-three  fine  stallions  are 
kept  in  the  establishment.  No  mares  are  kept.  The  stallions 
are  distributed  among  the  different  cantons.  The  charge  for 
the  stallions'  services  is  $1.17  each. 

The  government  charges  to  private  individuals  a  nominal 
duty  on  imports,  amounting  to  59  cents  per  horse  and  30  cents 
per  colt. 

When  employed  in  government  service,  the  horses,  whether 
owned  by  the  government  or  hired  from  citizens,  are  each 
allowed  the  following  ration :  9.9  pounds  oats,  9.9  pounds  hay, 
and  6 . 6  pounds  straw.  The  commanding  officers  of  the  cavalry 
remount  depot  and  of  the  r^gie  are  allowed  to  vary  this  ration 
for  sick  horses  and  those  undergoing  acclimatization,  provided 
the  appropriation  be  not  exceeded.  When  necessary,  bran 
and  molasses  may  be  fed.  Compressed  forage  is  seldom,  if 
ever,  used.     The  horses  are  habitually  groomed  twice  a  day. 


SWITZERLAND. 


339 


In  1900  a  census  of  all  horses,  with  a  view  to  their  employ- 
ment for  military  purposes,  was  made  in  Switzerland,  with 
the  following  result : 


Tjiie : 

Common — 

Heavy 

Light  

Improved 

Pure  blood 

Half  blood 

Saddle  horses : 
Officers — 

Officers  incorporated 

Trained 

Suitable  for  training 

Noncommissioned  officers — 

Ti-ained 

Suitable  for  training 

Draft  horses : 

For  light  artillery 

For  train 

Total  adapted  for  military  services 

Horses  that  may  be  used  in  emergency 

Unfit  for  military  services 

JIules  adapted  for  pack  services 


23,  804 
49, 38B 

1    61,896 

21,277 

15,  (K13 

7,  381 

4,490 

117 

161 

972 

862 

3,525 

2,434 

1,617 

1,374 

1,837 

1,421 

3, 627 

3,041 

23,  897 

22, 654 

29,719 

25, 619 

65, 194 

57,405 

18, 457 

10, 140 

18,314 

14,005 

1,613 

1,544 

The  chief  of  the  military  department  says,  with  reference 
to  the  showing  made,  that  in  point  of  view  of  numbers  and 
quality  of  the  horses  adapted  for  military  services,  this  census 
has  been  favorable.  There  appears  to  be  in  the  country  an 
ample  supply  of  horses  for  a  mobilization  of  the  entire  mili- 
tary force.  All  the  animals  may  be  taken  when  needed  in 
defense  of  the  country.  The  report  shows  a  decided  increase 
during  the  preceding  decade. 

On  January  1,  1901,  the  elite  cavalry  possessed  4,6-11  horses 
and  the  landwehr  cavalry  3,433  horses. 


XIX.-TURKEY. 

[From  "Ziicbt  uuil  Kenioutining  der  Militar-Pferde  aller  Staaten,"  by  Dr.  Paul  Goldbeck,  Berlin, 

1901.] 


According  to  tlie  reports  of  the  tax  officials,  which  for 
various  reasons  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  entirely  trust- 
worthy, Turkey  has  over  2,000,000  horses;  nevertheless,  she 
is  unable  to  supply  her  own  remounts  at  home,  probably 
because  the  amounts  offered  are  too  small.  The  peasants  are 
unwilling  to  sell  as  low  as  those  of  other  countries. 

There  are  four  military  studs  in  Turkey,  all  under  the 
supervision  of  an  inspector  general,  who  is  directly  subordi- 
nate to  the  war  ministry.     They  are  as  follows : 

Chifteler,  the  largest,  is  22  miles  long  by  16  broad.  The 
number  of  horses  is  as  follows:  52  stallions  (15  Hungarian 
and  Russian,  6  native,  31  Arab);  307  brood  mares  (119  Hun- 
garian and  Russian,  180  native,  8  original  Arab) ;  686  foals 
(382  of  foreign  blood,  164  native,  llO  Arab) ;  7  working  horses; 
total,  1,052  horses. 

Malatia  (in  Armenia). — The  number  of  horses  is  460. 
The  breeding  tendency  is  the  same  as  for  the  preceding  stud, 
but  it  is  sought  here  also  to  refine  the  Kurd  breed  of  horse. 

Adana,  with  250  horses  at  present.     The  mares  are  Arabs. 

Bagdad. — This  stud  consisted  in  1899  of  1,300  horses  of 
pure  Arab  stock  and  20  Hungarian  mares. 

There  are  no  private  studs  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word. 

Beyond  the  free  use  of  stallions  from  the  above-mentioned 
studs,  horse  raising  receives  no  support  from  the  government. 

The  export  of  Arab  mares  is  strictly  forbidden,  and  that  of 
stallions  is  subject  to  an  export  duty  of  $23.16  each.  There 
are  really  no  horses  exported,  except  a  few  of  Arab  stock,  and 
imports  are  made  principally  for  the  army. 

The  Turkish  army  contains,  on  a  peace  footing,  40|  cavalry 
regiments  with  880  horses  each  (202  squadrons),  15  batteries 
of  horse  artillery,  169  batteries  of  field  artillery,  38  batteries 
of  mountain  artillery,  and  13  train  companies  with  mules  and 
a  few  horses.     In  war  there  would  be  115  cavalry  regiments 

(341) 


342  REMOUNT    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

with  543  squadrons,  each  squadron  with  150  horses,  and  18 
field-artillery  regiments  with  21 G  field  batteries,  and  36  horse 
batteries  of  6  guns  each,  the  field  batteries  having  150  and  the 
horse  batteries  230  horses  each. 

The  irregular  Kurd  cavalry,  which  was  recently  increased 
from  36  to  45  regiments — the  so-called  hamadich — procures 
its  own  remounts.  The  military  horses  of  the  remaining 
troops  are  purchased  abroad,  partly  in  Russia  but  principally 
(and  of  late  almost  entirely)  in  Hungary.  The  number  pur- 
chased each  year  depends  solely  on  the  financial  means 
available.  The  yearly  percentage  of  remounts  required  is 
ofiicially  fixed  at  11  for  the  cavalry  and  9  for  the  artillery. 
For  1898  1,100  artillery  horses  were  bought  in  Russia,  and  400 
artillery  and  700  cavalry  horses  in  Hungary.  The  require- 
ments made  of  remounts  are  the  same  as  those  in  Germany, 
after  which  they  are  copied,  but  in  reality  any  healthy  5-year- 
old  is  accepted.  There  are  several  remount  depots  in  Turkey 
in  Asia,  but  none  in  Turkey  proper.  The  length  of  service 
of  a  horse  is  said  to  be  officially  calculated  at  seven  years. 
Mules  are  used  for  the  mountain  artillery  and  for  hauling 
forage  and  x^ro vision  wagons,  etc. 


APPENDIX  A 


The  following  report  was  not  received  until  after  the  other 
manuscript  had  gone  to  press : 

INFANTRY  TARGET  PRACTICE  REGULATIONS  OF 

JAPAN. 

[Reported  by  Maj.  0.  E.  Wood,  Artilleiy  Corps,  United  States  Military  Attache  at  Tokyo.J 

The  following  extract  from  a  recent  translation  made  under 
my  direction  of  "  Infantry  Target  Practice  Regulations  of  the 
Japanese  Army "  will  give  an  idea  of  the  plan  and  scope  of 
instruction  which  is  carried  out  in  each  infantry  regiment : 

PART  I. — THE  THEOBY  OF  TARGET  PRACTICE. 

The  two  chapters  devoted  to  Part  I  contain  a  brief  discus- 
sion of  the  trajectory — its  form  and  elements,  the  influence  of 
the  force  of  gravity,  the  weather,  light,  wind,  etc.,  on  the 
firing ;  a  discussion  of  the  front  and  rear  sights,  line  of  sight, 
etc.,  velocity,  penetration,  danger  space,  angles  of  elevation 
and  angles  of  fall. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  difiiculties  ex|)erienced  in  using 
the  translation  for  the  purposes  of  this  pajDer,  the  following 
quotations  are  made : 

"The  weight  is  that  which  to  fall  down  the  flying  bullet 
and  its  degree  is  to  increase  with  the  time  elapsed." 

"  The  gravity  is  that  which  to  drop  the  bullet  to  ground 
according  to  the  time  of  the  flight  and  the  resistance  of  air 
constantly  reduced  the  velocity  of  bullet,  therefore  the  tra- 
jectory forms  the  curve,  and  degree  of  it  increased  as  much 
as  the  bullet  apart  from  the  muzzle." 

PART   II. — FIRING  INSTRUCTIONS. 

Chapter  1  discusses  the  duties  of  officers — regimental,  bat- 
talion, and  company"  commanders,  company  officers,  and 
noncommissioned  officers. 

(343) 


344  APPENDIX. 

With  reference  to  the  duties  of  the  company  officers,  the 
translation  reads : 

"These  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  are  not  only 
to  be  well  acquainted  with  theory  of  firing,  but  to  be  well 
furnished  with  skill  to  correct  the  bad  rifle." 

Chapter  2  takes  up  the  modes  of  instruction — a  general  out- 
line— elementary  drills  for  recruits,  sighting  drill,  position 
and  aiming  drills.  One  quotation  is  very  pat  and  well 
expressed:   . 

"In  all  firings,  the  selection  of  a  proper  position,  accuracy 
in  estimating  distances,  quickness  of  loading,  correctness  of 
sighting,  quickness  of  aiming,  and  the  presence  of  mind,  are 
the  necessary  conditions  of  a  soldier,  and  one  who  lacks  them 
can  not  be  called  a  skilled  marksman." 

Chapter  3 — preliminary  drills — goes  into  the  details  of  aim- 
ing drills,  a  complete  discussion  of  the  sights,  use  of  tripods 
and  sand  bags  for  proper  instruction  in  aiming,  methods  of 
correcting  errors,  tests  by  means  of  the  triangle,  and  describes 
the  proper  standing,  kneeling,  and  prone  positions. 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  the  trigger  and  hammer,  para- 
graph 55  of  the  translation  reads : 

"The  use  of  trigger  has  great  influences  upon  the  firing, 
therefore,  it  must  be  minutely  instructed  and  it  needs  con- 
stant attention." 

Chapter  4 — estimating  distances — is  very  full  and  complete. 
It  provides  that  every  officer,  noncommissioned  officer,  and 
soldier  must  become  skillful  in  estimating  distances  for  short 
range  (up  to  600  meters),  for  middle  range  (between  600  and 
1,000  meters),  and  become  accustomed  to  estimate  distances 
for  long  range  (over  1,000  meters). 

Three  methods  are  provided : 

First,  estimating  by  sight  by  the  use  of  soldiers  either 
mounted  or  dismounted  in  various  positions.  After  the  dis- 
tance is  estimated  by  sight  it  will  be  actually  measured  by 
the  step  or  by  the  surveyor's  chain,  except  for  the  longer 
ranges,  when  maps  and  instruments  are  used. 

Second,  by  sound.  The  velocity  with  which  sound  travels 
being  given  as  a  guide. 

Third,  by  pacing. 

(The  above  methods  are  very  similar  to  those  used  in  the 
United  States  army.) 


I 


APPENDIX.  345 

Chapter  5  gives  the  divisions  of  target  practice  and  the 
allowance  of  ammunition.  Three  divisions  are  mentioned: 
drill  practice,  battle  practice,  and  testing  practice.  These 
divisions  are  explained  with  great  minuteness,  and  are  very 
complete. 

Each  officer,  noncommissioned  officer,  and  soldier  is  allowed 
annually  25  rounds  of  ball  cartridges  in  drill  practice,  45 
rounds  of  ball  cartridges  in  battle  practice,  and  100  rounds  of 
blank  cartridges  for  preliminary  practice  and  in  field  service. 

Each  company  is  annually  allowed  in  addition  1,200  rounds 
of  ball  cartridges  for  rifle  tests,  inspection  practice,  and  for 
the  honor  firing. 

Chapter  6  takes  up  details  of  drill  practice,  covers  all 
instruction  concerning  the  firing,  the  ranges,  the  dress,  the 
duties  of  markers,  the  superintendence  by  commissioned  offi- 
cers, the  various  details  required,  the  methods  of  marking 
and  scoring,  the  records,  the  different  classes  of  marks- 
men, the  care  and  distribution  of  ammunition,  and  the  police 
of  the  range. 

Among  other  rules  the  translation  reads : 

"The  aiming  is  not  exercised  licentiously  on  the  range." 

Chapter  7  speaks  of  the  battle  practice.  The  object  is  to 
practice  firing  under  battle  conditions,  the  troops  being  in 
heavy  marching  order.  This  practice  is  divided  into  file 
firing,  and  party  battle  practice. 

In  file  firing,  a  prej^aratory  drill  is  had  under  the  reg- 
ulations for  skirmish  drill  in  Part  I  of  the  infantry  drill 
regulations. 

The  file  firing  is  conducted  in  the  company,  man  targets  in 
different  positions  being  used  at  unknown  distances.  As  the 
men  become  more  proficient,  disappearing  and  moving  targets 
are  used. 

The  result  of  the  shooting  is  reported  by  signal  markers 
after  the  firing  has  ceased. 

Party  battle  practice  is  conducted  at  unknown  distances  in 
short  range,  middle  range,  and  long  range.  Fire  control  and 
discipline  conform  to  the  requirements  of  infantry  drill 
regulations. 

Battle  practice  is  either  by  squad,  section,  or  company  and 
is  always  practiced  at  unknown  distances  in  various  localities. 

Chapter  8  is  devoted  to  testing  practice.  This  is  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  for  accuracy  by  means  of  the  rifle  securely 


346  APPENDIX. 

fixed  on  a  tripod  or  stand,  at  known  distances,  in  good 
weather.  Every  soldier  in  turn  is  required  to  fire  nine  shots 
at  300  meters'  distance  with  his  own  rifle  in  the  usual  positions 
for  that  range.  The  results  are  compared  with  the  standard 
rifle,  and  all  deficiencies  or  inaccuracies  are  corrected  by- 
skilled  workmen. 

Night  practice  is  had  occasionally  at  targets  posted  at  from 
200  to  800  meters,  using  a  search  light  or  fire  light,  and 
resting  the  rifle  on  top  of  the  breastworks.  This  is  for  the 
purpose  of  trying  the  men  under  unusual  conditions. 

Chapter  9  gives  the  different  classes  of  marksmen. 

The  third  class  consists  of  recruits  and  men  in  their  first 
year  of  service;  in  preliminary  practice  at  100,  150,  and  200 
meters,  and  in  the  regular  practice  at  200,  300,  400,  500,  and 
600  meters. 

After  completing  the  course  of  practice  laid  down,  the 
third-class  man  is  promoted  to  the  second  class,  and  after 
completing  a  somewhat  similar  course  in  that  class,  he 
becomes  a  first-class  marksman  and  practices  at  all  ranges 
under  varying  conditions. 

Officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  who  have  fulfilled 
the  requirements  of  the  first  class  for  two  successive  years 
become  special  marksmen. 

Chapter  10  is  devoted  to  inspection  practice.  Once  in  each 
year  the  division  or  brigade  commander  inspects  each  regi- 
ment in  battle  practice,  simulated  so  far  as  practicable  to 
actual  battle  conditions,  thus  testing  the  skill  of  officers  and 
men.  A  copy  of  the  report  of  this  inspection  is  preserved  in 
the  regiment. 

Chapter  11  speaks  of  marksmen's  badges.  Four  badges  or 
medals  are  given  each  year  as  a  reward  of  good  shooting. 

The  special  marksmen's  badge  is  given  to  the  three  best 
shots  in  a  regiment. 

The  first-class  marksmen's  badge  is  given  to  the  two  best 
shots  among  the  commissioned  officers  of  each  battalion,  and 
to  the  two  best  shots  among  the  soldiers  of  each  battalion. 

The  second-class  marksmen's  badge  is  given  to  the  two  best 
shots  among  the  soldiers  of  each  company. 

The  third-class  marksmen's  badge  is  given  to  the  best  shot 
among  the  soldiers  of  each  company. 

These  badges  are  presented  with  due  ceremony  with  the 
whole  command  drawn  up  under  arms,  and  may  be  worn  on 
the  uniform  during  the  individual's  service  in  the  army. 


APPENDIX.  347 

PART   III. — MATERIALS  FOR  TARGET   PRACTICE,    AND  THE   RIFLE   RANGE. 

Chapter  1 — Targets  and  Marking  Instruments. — The 
targets  are  made  of  wood  and  bamboo  frames,  covered  with 
cloth  and  paper. 

1.  Ordinary  target,  a  white  rectangle  1.65  meters  long  and 
1  meter  in  width,  on  which  ten  black  concentric  circles  are 
painted ;  the  intervening  spaces  or  zones  between  the  circles 
counting  from  1  (outer)  to  10  (bull's-eye).  The  eighth  and 
ninth  zones  and  bull's-eye  are  all  in  black,  the  eighth  and 
ninth  circle  painted  in  white.  The  diameter  of  the  central 
zone  is  10  centimeters. 

2.  Ordinary  target  with  head  figure  covering  eighth,  ninth, 
and  tenth  zone,  the  black  figure  showing  the  head  and  shoul- 
ders of  a  soldier. 

3.  The  figure  target,  complete  figure  of  an  infantry  soldier 
in  black,  widest  part  of  figure  being  40  centimeters. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  figure  targets : 

(a)  Whole  body  figure  standing,  1.65  meters  high. 
(6)  Kneeling  figure,  1  meter  high. 

(c)  Breast  figure,  50  centimeters  high. 

(d)  Head  figure,  35  centimeters  high. 

4.  Figure  target  of  several  figures ;  the  figures  are  in  black 
on  a  white  rectangle,  1.65  by  1  meter  in  size. 

Targets  are  of  three  kinds,  fixed,  disappearing,  and  mova- 
ble. The  fixed  (ordinary)  target  is  on  a  double  revolving 
frame,  similar  to  those  in  the  United  States  in  manner  of 
construction.  The  disappearing  target  is  handled  by  a  sys- 
tem of  ropes  and  pulleys,  appearing  and  disappearing  from  a 
fixed  location.  The  movable  target  is  arranged  so  that  it  can 
be  moved  (within  certain  limits)  in  any  direction — up,  down, 
right,  and  left. 

Signal  flags  and  markers  are  constructed  and  used  generally 
in  a  similar  manner  to  those  in  the  American  army. 

Chapter  2 — The  Ranges. — The  ordinary  ranges  for  drill 
practice  are  exceedingly  well  planned,  constructed,  and  ar- 
ranged for  the  different  firing  stands  from  1 00  up  to  600  meters. 
They  are  well  protected  by  traverses,  so  that  every  range  can 
be  used  at  the  same  time;  a  long  bricked-up  gallery  leading 
from  the  longest  range  (at  the  side)  to  the  long  continuous 
line  of  pits  where  the  targets  are  placed,  16  targets  on  each 
side. 


348  APPENDIX. 

These  target  ranges  are  located  in  several  places  in  the 
suburbs  of  Tokyo,  and  also  adjacent  to  the  stations  of  infan- 
try troops  of  the  different  divisions  throughout  the  empire. 

Temporary  ranges  are  used  for  battle  practice  in  such  local- 
ities as  may  be  deemed  suitable. 

PART  IV.— PRACTICE  RECORDS  AND  REPORTS. 

The  usual  and  customary  record  books  for  the  different 
battalions  and  companies  are  kept ;  also,  each  soldier  has  a 
target  practice  record  book  which  he  keeps,  similar  to  ours. 

Company  practice  records  are  completed  every  year  and 
reports  sent  in  to  the  battalion  commander.  Each  battalion 
commander  is  responsible  that  full  reports  are  sent  to  regi- 
mental headquarters. 

The  regimental  reports  are  sent  to  brigade  commanders, 
and  brigade  reports  to  division  commanders,  where  they  are 
consolidated  and  forwarded  to  the  war  department. 

ADDENDUM. 

Regulations  for  gallery  practice  are  given,  the  range  gen- 
erally being  about  15  meters,  small  targets,  and  reduced 
charges. 

Target  practice  for  the  "kobi"  (landwehr)  reserve,  depot 
troops,  and  the  six  weeks'  active  service  soldiers  is  also  pro- 
vided for,  regular  tables  of  instruction  being  given. 

Honor  firing  or  competitive  tournaments  are  executed  in 
each  regiment  annually  under  the  supervision  of  the  division 
commander,  according  to  special  regulations  from  the  war 
minister. 

The  time  and  details  of  the  event  are  prepared  and  notifi- 
cation of  the  place  selected,  etc.,  are  all  sent  through  the 
division. 

A  special  badge  is  given  to  that  company  in  the  division 
which  makes  the  highest  percentage,  and  three  days'  fur- 
lough is  given  to  each  member  of  the  entire  company. 

This  badge  is  preserved  by  the  company  until  the  honor 
firing  of  the  succeeding  year. 

A  special  report  is  made  and  forwarded  by  the  division 
commander  to  the  war  minister. 


APPENDIX.  349 

INFANTRY    TARGET    PRACTICE. 

REPORT   OF  THE   TARGET   PRACTICE   OF  THE    FIRST   REGIMENT   OF    INFANTRY 
OF  THE   IMPERIAL   GUARD   DIVISION. 

On  April  25,  by  permission  of  the  war  department,  I  wit- 
nessed the  target  practice  of  the  first  battalion  of  the  first 
regiment  of  infantry  of  the  imperial  guard  division  on  the 
"shatekiba"  (target  range)  at  Oknbo  in  the  suburbs  of  Tokyo. 

The  firing  was  at  300  meters,  the  i^osition  taken  was  prone. 
The  accuracy  of  the  shooting  was  not  very  good ;  the  expla- 
nation given  being  that  they  were  only  first-year  men. 

The  Murata  rifle,  caliber  0.286,  is  similar  to  the  Mauser 
rifle. 

Cartridges  inserted  by  a  clip  (of  five  cartridges) ;  the  bolt 
action  of  breechblock  simple  and  easy  to  manipulate. 

The  targets  (at  that  range)  seemed  to  be  smaller  than  our 
own,  and  were  certainly  difiicult  to  hit,  for  it  took  me  three 
shots  to  get  on  the  target. 

All  the  conduct  of  the  firing  was  excellent,  no  confusion 
whatever,  no  talking ;  and  the  ofiicers  appeared  much  inter- 
ested in  the  practice  of  their  men,  taking  frequent  occasion 
to  remedy  faults  in  elevation,  windage,  holding,  sighting,  etc. 

In  the  pits  which  I  visited,  everything  was  conducted 
quietly  and  uniformly,  there  were  three  markers  to  each  tar- 
get. When  a  shot  was  fired  at  a  target,  the  target  was 
revolved,  the  shot  hole  (if  there  was  one)  discovered  and  pasted 
over  by  one  man,  the  flag  raised  by  another  man,  while  the 
third  man  indicated  on  the  visible  target,  by  means  of  a  disk 
at  the  end  of  a  long  pole,  the  exact  position  of  the  hit.  The 
work  of  each  group  of  men  was  superintended  and  controlled 
by  a  sergeant,  while  a  commissioned  oflicer  overlooked  and 
controlled  all  the  targets  which  were  being  used  by  each  par- 
ticular company. 

In  all  my  experience  I  can  suggest  no  improvement  in  the 
manner  of  conducting  target  practice ;  it  seemed  to  be  com- 
plete. 

The  target  range  at  Okubo  is  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the 
vicinity  of  Tokyo;  it  covers  an  unusually  wide  area,  there 
being  arrangements  for  32  targets  which  can  be  used  at  the 
same  time,  atr  the  same  range,  or  at  different  ranges. 

When  firing  is  conducted  for  battle  practice,  the  troops  are 
marched  out  in  the  country  as  if  for  a  regular  campaign 
against  the  enemy,  and  firing  up  to  1,200  meters  is  practiced. 


350  APPENDIX. 

AMMUNITION   ALLOWANCE. 

Note. — Information  just  received  that  the  annual  allow- 
ance of  ammunition  is  as  follows :  For  each  infantry  soldier, 
125  ball  and  100  blank  cartridges ;  for  each  cavalry  soldier, 
98  ball  and  30  blank  cartridges.  For  revolver  practice — for 
each  infantry  noncommissioned  officer,  80  ball  cartridges; 
for  each  cavalry  noncommissioned  officer,  20  ball  cartridges. 

FIELD  ARTILLERY  TARGET   PRACTICE. 

The  field  artillery  application  school  is  located  at  Yotsu- 
kaido,  about  30  miles  southeast  from  Tokyo,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Colonel  Noma  of  the  artillery,  with  a  staff  of 
about  ten  instructors.  The  students  number  about  30 ;  there 
being  one  lieutenant  from  each  of  the  regiments  of  artillery 
of  the  twelve  divisions  and  the  imperial  guard,  and  one  lieu- 
tenant from  each  of  the  six  additional  regiments  of  artillery 
which  constitute  the  two  brigades  of  artillery,  together  with 
extra  officers  and  supernumeraries. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  essentially  a  practical  one,  con- 
sisting of  instruction  and  practice  in  field  and  mountain  artil- 
lery, and  the  care  of  ammunition,  signaling,  and  equitation, 
and  extends  over  a  period  of  six  months — from  December  1  to 
June  10 — divided  into  two  courses  of  three  months  each. 

There  are  two  batteries  of  artillery  at  the  school,  fully 
equipped  with  both  field  and  mountain  guns,  so  that  each 
may  be  used  as  occasion  requires. 

The  eighteenth  regiment  of  artillery,  composed  of  six  bat- 
teries of  six  guns  each  (which  belongs  to  the  second  brigade  of 
artillery),  is  also  quartered  here  in  barracks  and  stables  adjoin- 
ing the  inclosure  which  comprises  the  school  of  instruction. 

The  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  extends  for  several 
miles,  giving  an  area  rectangular  in  shape,  with  but  few 
clumps  of  trees,  and  fairly  level ;  small  hummocks  and  shal- 
low depressions  here  and  there  not  interfering  with  the 
maneuvers  of  artillery  in  any  direction,  presented  an  ideal 
terrain  for  practice. 

The  extreme  ends  of  this  range  of  open  country  is  bounded 
by  thick  groves  or  small  forests  of  trees  behind  which,  to  the 
north  and  -south,  have  been  constructed  high  artificial  em- 
bankments of  earth  for  the  better  protection  of  the  surround- 
ing country  from  the  effects  of  artillery  fire,  but  which  are 
not  visible. 


APPENDIX.  351 

Oil  the  occasion  of  my  visit  on  April  28,  the  various  bat- 
teries of  the  eighteenth  regiment  were  having  drills  of  various 
kinds;  other  detachments  were  being  drilled  in  signaling, 
and  while  one  of  the  school  batteries  was  being  drilled  as  a 
mountain  battery,  the  other  battery  had  proceeded  to  the 
plain  of  maneuver  preparatory  to  the  artillery  practice  which 
was  to  take  place. 

At  the  extreme  end  of  the  range  to  the  south  could  be  seen 
(with  glasses)  the  target,  supposedly  the  enemy's  artillery, 
there  being  eight  groups  at  proper  intervals  representing  the 
guns  with  their  detachments. 

The  battery  (of  six  guns  and  three  caissons)  moved  out  from 
their  temporary  resting  place  in  column  of  sections — took  up 
the  trot,  and  came  "  right  front  into  battery  "  into  their  first 
j)Osition  (about  3,000  meters),  obtained  an  approximate  range 
by  use  of  a  range-finder,  and  fired  two  or  three  shells ;  then 
rapid  fire  of  shell  and  shrapnel  for  about  two  minutes  (as 
near  as  could  be  judged  while  watching  the  effect  through 
glasses) .  The  range  seemed  to  be  very  accurate,  as  the  shrap- 
nel burst  apparently  a  short  distance  in  front  and  over  the 
line  of  targets. 

The  actual  result  in  hits  had  not  been  ascertained  when  I 
left  the  field. 

A  certain  peculiarity  in  the  ground  must  here  be  noted  in 
order  to  make  intelligible  what  is  to  follow.  There  were 
places  across  the  plain  of  fire  where  the  ground  seemed  to 
break  into  parallel  lines. 

Suddenly  there  was  a  sharp  yell  from  someone,  the  guns, 
which  had  ceased  firing,  were  run  by  hand  rapidly  to  the  front 
some  50  meters,  and  looking  toward  the  gun  targets  I  saw 
what  appeared  to  be  the  head  of  a  column  of  infantry  in  com- 
pany column  a  short  distance  to  the  right  of  the  gun  targets 
and  some  300  meters  nearer;  and  I  was  informed  by  one  of 
the  ofiicers  that  the  yell  meant,  ' '  There  comes  the  infantry  in 
column." 

In  an  incredibly  short  time  the  new  range  of  the  infantry 
column  target  had  been  found  by  one  or  two  shells ;  and  then 
rapid  fire  with  shrapnel  (timed  at  the  rate  of  one  shot  every 
three  seconds)  filled  the  vicinity  of  the  target  with  bursting 
shrapnel  for  about  one  and  one-half  minutes. 

Then  another  sharp  yell,  and  we  could  see  suddenly  a  line 
of  soldiers'  heads  which  appeared  to  spring  out  of  the  ground 


352  APPENDIX. 

at  a  distance  of  some  700  meters  nearer,  and  extending  almost 
across  the  whole  plain  of  fire.  (I  was  afterwards  told  that 
there  were  1,000  of  them — there  certainly  were  several 
hundred.) 

Again  the  range  was  quickly  obtained,  and  the  shrapnel 
seemed  to  cover  the  entire  line — the  little  puffs  of  smoke  of 
the  bursting  shrapnel  seeming  to  be  at  the  right  distance  in 
front,  and  just  high  enough  to  do  effective  work.  There 
were  of  course  some  wild  shots,  and  some  few  short  fuzes ; 
but  I  did  not  notice  a  single  failure  to  explode  in  the  air.  It 
was  wonderful  shooting,  but  I  would  have  been  better  satisfied 
if  I  could  have  found  out  the  percentage  of  hits. 

These  infantry  targets  were  so  arranged  that  by  moving  a 
long  lever,  away  off  at  one  side  out  of  sight  and  out  of  range, 
the  rows  of  figures  could  be  made  to  show  up  above  the  slight 
depressions  referred  to,  and  by  a  reverse  motion  could  be 
made  to  disappear. 

It  certainly  was  a  very  ingenious  and  novel  idea,  and  very 
effective ;  and  as  there  were  a  number  of  these  depressions, 
where  the  infantry  column  or  line  target  could  be  used,  it 
was  not  known  in  advance  where  they  were  to  appear,  and 
in  each  instance  the  range  had  to  be  found  in  order  to  do 
effective  work. 

The  effect  of  these  heads  showing  up  as  they  did  was  un- 
canny, and  one  could  not  resist  the  impression  that  they  were 
human  beings. 

The  battery  limbered  up  and  withdrew  out  of  sight  until 
after  lunch  was  disposed  of  by  officers  and  men,  when  the 
firing  was  resumed  under  similar  conditions  but  at  different 
ranges.  I  was  much  impressed  by  the  rapid  and  oi-derly 
manner  in  which  they  all  worked  together  with  apparently 
good  results. 

After  the  practice  was  completed,  all  the  student  officers 
and  the  battery  officers  who  conducted  the  firing  were  gathered 
together,  and  an  exhaustive  criticism  was  made  by  Colonel 
Noma  and  the  field  officers  present,  in  which  every  point  was 
carefully  discussed,  the  officers  all  making  notes  in  their  field 
books  for  future  reference  and  guidance. 

On  returning  to  the  parade  ground  of  the  school,  the  drill 
with  the  mountain  guns  was  witnessed. 

Five  horses  (no  mules  are  used)  were  packed  with  one  gun 
and  its  equipment.     While  marching  in  column  the  command 


APPENDIX.  363 

"Halt!  In  Battery"  was  given,  and  in  one  minute  and  thirty 
seconds  (timed)  the  gun  was  in  position,  loaded,  and  ready 
for  action,  and  the  horses  to  the  rear  out  of  the  way. 

These  Japanese  soldiers  seem  to  be  human  machines ;  they 
work  quickly  and  silently,  each  doing  his  own  part  exactly 
as  he  has  been  instructed,  and  the  officers  seem  imbued  with 
a  pride  in  their  profession  which  is  most  commendable. 

Annual  Allowance  of  Ammunition. — Shell  and  shrap- 
nel: To  each  battery,  426  rounds;  Blank  cartridges :  To  each 
battery,  600  rounds. 


i 


INDEX 


TO 


TARGET  PRACTICE  AND  REMOUNT  SYSTEMS. 


(355) 


INDEX  TO  TARGET  PRACTICE. 


AllowaDce     of     money    for     maiiiteuance, 
prizes,  etc.: 

Austria-Hungary 18 

Denmark 41 

France 57 

Germany 89,90,91,108,112,114 

Russia 135 

Sweden 150, 158 

Ammunition,  allowance  of,  small  arms  and 
guns : 

Austria-Hungary — 

Cavalry 20 

Infantry 15 

Technical  troops 22 

Denmark — 

Artillery 42 

Cavalry 39,40 

Infantry 27,30,32,36,38 

France — 

Artillery 48,70 

Cavalry 48,61 

Infantry 47,50 

Germany — 

Artillery 112 

Cavalry 107 

Infantry 81,84,90 

Rifles 90 

Technical  troops 91 

Great  Britain 122 

Russia — 

Artillery 137 

Cavalry 136 

Infantry 133 

Sweden — 

Artillery 167,169,170 

Cavalry 151,152 

Infantry 147-149 

Switzerland — 

Artillery 202 

Infantry  and  cavalry..  193, 197, 199, 201 

Machine  gun 202 

Aitillery  target  practice: 

Denmark 41 

France 48, 64, 66, 72,  73 

Germany 110,115 

Russia 136 

Sweden 159 

Switzerland 200,202 

Badges.     (See  Insignia.) 
Camps  of  instruction  : 

Denmark 41 

France 60.69 


Camps  of  instruction — Continued. 

Germany 98,116,117 

Great  Britain 122 

Russia 138 

Sweden 150,166 

Switzerland 203 

Classification  of  men  firing : 

Austria-Hungary 8,12 

Denmark 39 

France 50, 63, 34, 71 

Germany 79, 85, 91, 108 

Great  Britain 119 

Russia 135 

Sweden 147,152 

Switzerland 200 

Collective  fire : 

Austria-Hungary 7,16 

Denmark 32 

France 47, 54, 56 

Germany 106 

Great  Britain 121 

Russia 1.34,136 

Sweden 146, 148 

Switzerland 196 

Competitions : 

Austria-Hungary . 18,23 

Denmark 36,39 

France 63,71,72 

Germany 88,  89,  93, 108, 114 

Russia 135 

Sweden 149,153,158,159,164 

Switzerland 196 

Demonstration  firing,  testing  rifles,  etc.: 

.■\ustria-Hungary 7,16 

France : 62 

Germany 77, 92 

Estimating  distances : 

Austria-Hungary 8 

Denmark 28,  29, 38 

France 65 

Germany 79 

Russia 135 

Sweden 145 

Switzerland 192, 193,  202 

E.xamination  or  test  firingi: 

Denmark 29, 36 

Germany 77, 93 

Field  firing: 

Austria-Hungary 16,21 

Denmark 26 

France 55, 69 

Gerniiiiiy 93,105,111 


(357) 


358 


INDEX    TO   TARGET    PRACTICE. 


Page. 
Field  fiiiug — Continued. 

Great  Britain 121-131 

Kussia 133 

Sweden 146 

Switzeriand 196 

Figure  targets.     (See  Targets.) 
Firing  schools : 

Denmark 37,38 

France — 

Artillery 70 

Infantry 50,60,62 

Regimental 63 

Germany 110, 115, 116 

Great  Britain 121 

Kussia 137,138 

Sweden — 

Artillery 160, 165, 166, 168, 170, 188 

Cavalry 152 

Infantry 142,147,149 

Switzerland 191,201,202 

Gallery  practice : 

Austria-Hungary 8 

Denmark 27 

France 47,48,51 

Germany 78 

Russia 136 

Sweden 140, 141, 147 

Switzerland 194 

Individual  practice,  range  and  field  : 

Austria-Hungary 8,21 

Denmark 38 

France 47,56 

Germany 77-81, 104 

Great  Britain 120,121 

Russia 134,136 

Sweden 146. 148 

Switzerland 194 

Insignia  and  rewards  for  good  shots  : 

Austria-Hungary 13 

Denmark 27, 36 

France 64 

Germany 87, 88, 90, 114 

Kussia 135 

Sweden 150,158,164,165 

Switzerland 196 

Instruction,  course  of: 
Austria-Hungary — 

Cavalry 19,20 

Infantry 7,11,12 

Officers' 22 

Technical  and  train  troops 22,23 

Denmark — 

Artillery 41 

Cavalry 37,38 

Infantry 25 

France — 

Artillery 66 

Cavalrj'  _.. 61 

Infantry  .. 49,54,55,60 

Germany — 

Artillery 110,115 

Cavalry 107 


Page. 
Instruction,  course  of — Continued. 
Germany — Continued. 

Cyclists 91 

Infantry 77 

Rifles 89 

Technical  troops 92 

Great  Britain 119-121 

Russia — 

Artillery 136 

Cavalry 136 

Infantry 133,134 

Sweden — 

ArtiUery 159,161,166 

Cavalry 151 

Infantry 139,142 

Switzerland — 

Artillery 199,202 

Cavalry 201 

Infantry 191,197 

Machine-gun  practice : 

France 62 

Germany 116 

Switzerland 202 

Marking,  scoring,  signaling: 

Austria-Hungary 13 

Denmark i 33 

Germany 84,86,113 

Great  Britain 120,121 

Russia 135 

Sweden 145,146,164 

Switzerland 199 

Matches.     {See  Competitions.) 
Officers,  practice : 

Austria-Hungary 19,22 

Denmark 37 

France 50 

Germany 84,89,109 

Russia 134 

Sweden 153, 167 

Switzerland 191,192,198,201 

Officers,  range  ;  duties 50,51 

Pistol    firing.      (See  Revolver  and    pistol 

practice.) 
Position  and  aiming  drills.     (See  Instruc- 
tion, course  of.) 

Practice,  additional,  Denmark 32 

Practice,  field  firing.     (See  Field  firing.) 
Practice,  known  distances: 

Austria-Hungary ",8,21 

Denmark 30 

France 54 

Germany 85, 86, 89, 107, 110 

Great  Britain 120,121 

Russia 134,136 

Sweden 147, 148, 149, 151 

Switzerland 192,194,197,198 

Practice,  preliminary  or  preparatory : 

Austria-Hungarj- 11 

Denmark 25 

France 47,48,51,66 

Germany 77, 80, 85, 104 

Sweden 139, 153, 162 

Switzerland 192 


INDEX    TO   TARGET    PRACTICE. 


359 


Page. 

I'ractioe,  revolver.     {See  Kevolver  and  pis- 
tol pnictice.) 

Practice,  special  conditions,  Germany 92,9.'? 

Practice,  volley  tiring.     (See  Collective  fire.  1 

Prizes.     (See  Competitions.) 

Qiialifyinjj  scores : 

Austria-Hungary 12 

Germany 80,81,8.5 

Sweden 147, 152 

Switzerland 192,194,197,198 

Range  practice.     {See  Practice,  known  dis- 
tances.) 

Range  practice,  time  and  weather 8,  9 

Ranges.     (See  Camps  of  instruction.) 

Revolver  and  pistol  practice : 

.\ustria-Hungary 19 

Denmark .37,38,40 

France 49, 64 

Germany 109 

Russia — .  136,137 


Page. 
Kevolver  and  jiistol  practice — Conliniii-.i. 

Sweden 1.53-1.57 

Switzerland 201 

Schools  for  instruction  in  firing.     (See  Fir- 
ing schools. ) 

Scores  to  qualify.     (.See  Qualifying  scores.) 

Scoring.    (See  Marking,  scoring,  signaling.) 

Signaling.     (.See  Marking,  scoring,  signal- 
ing.) 

Targets : 

.\ustria-Hungary 9,10,11 

Denmark 29, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, 44 

France 52,  .57, 58, 74 

Germany 78,81,82,83,94-104 

Great  Britain 119,123-130 

Russia 133 

Sweden 142,143,150,171-188 

Switzerland 191-195,200 

Uniforms  worn  in  practice 9,65 

Volley  fire.     (See  Collective  fire.) 


I 


i 


INDEX  TO  REMOUNT  SYSTEMS. 


Piige. 

Acclimatization  of  horses : 

Austria-Hiinguiy 'i^O 

Switzerland 337 

Adana  stud,  Turkey 341 

Advances  for  purchase  of  officers"  remounts  : 

France 238 

Germany 273, 274 

Italy , 306 

Afghan  type  of  horses,  India 298 

Ages  of  horses  and  mules  : 

Algeria 249,202 

Austria-Hungary 208,209 

Chile 315 

Denmark 232,234 

Dutch  East  Indies 318 

France 244, 246, 249, 255 

Germany 271,275,276 

Great  Britain 286 

Italy 304, 3(17, 308 

Japan 311 

Netherlands 317 

Portugal 323 

Russia 328 

Spain 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 337 

Tunis 249 

Turkey 342 

Agram  stallion  depot,  Hungary 218 

Alberta  horse  breeding,  Can.ada 299 

Algerian  remounts 249 

Allelik.     (See  L'Allelik.) 

Allowances  for  remounts  to  officers  : 

Austria-Hungary 214 

France 255,  256 

Germany 273,  274,  279 

Italy 306 

American  stallions  in  Japan ^ 311 

Andalusian  saddle  horse 332 

Anglo-Hispano-Arab  stallions 331 

Anglo-Xorman  stallions: 

Argentina 313 

Austria-Hungary 220 

Chile 315 

Spain 331 

Annual  loss  of  horses.     (See  Yearly  recjuire- 
nieuts  of  horses.) 

Annual    requirement    of     remounts.     (.See 
Yearly  requirements  of  horses.) 

Antbra.\: 

France 266 

Italy 3(15 


(361 


Page. 

Antistreptococique  serum,  France 266 

Apponyi's  (Count  Albert)  breeding  estab- 
lishment, Austria-Hungary 221 

Apportionment  of  horses  on  mobilization: 

Austria-Hungary 215,216 

Denmark 230 

Appraisement  of  mobilized  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 216,217 

Denmark 231 

Germany 281 

Arab-Barbary  horses,  Algeria  and  Tunis 249, 

260,  261 

Arab-Barbary  thoroughbred  stallions,  num- 
ber of,  Algeria 260 

Arab  horses,  Algeria  and  Tunis 249,260,261 

Arab  horses,  imported  into  Argentina 249 

.Arab  mares : 

Germany 282 

Turkey 341 

Arab  mares,  export  forbidden,  Turkey 341 

Arab  stallions : 

Algeria 260 

Argentina 313 

Austria-Hungary 221 

France 260,261 

Germany 282 

India 297 

Italy 306 

Spain 331 

Turkey 341 

.\rdennes  hor.se,  Belgium 225 

Argentina    as   a   source   for    remounts   for 
Europe 313,314 

Argentine  horses 296,313,314 

.\rgentine  horses  in  France 313 

Army  breeding  farms.     (.See  Breeding  es- 
tablishments.) 

Army   horses   with   jirivate   keepers.     (See 
Civilians'  use  of  army  horses.) 

■\rmy  studs.     (.See  Studs.) 

Artillery  batteries,  number  of.     (See  Num- 
ber of  artillery  batteries.) 

Artillery  horses : 

Argentina 313,314 

Austria-Hungary 215,217 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 314 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229,  230 

Dutch  East  Indies 317 

France 247,248 

Germany 271 


362 


INDEX    TO   REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


Page. 
Aitilleiy  horses— Continued. 

Great  Britain 285,286 

Italy 303,  304, 305, 306, 309, 310 

Mexico 315 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 320 

Persia 321 

Russia 328,329 

Spain 332 

Switzerland 336,339 

Turkey 341,342 

Artillery  reg;inients,  number  of.     (.SVc  Num- 
ber of  artillery  regiments.) 
Asses : 

Argentina 313 

Bombay 298 

Chile 315 

China 227 

German  colonies 284 

Germany 274 

India 297,  298 

New  Zealand 301 

Oudh 298 

Punjab - 298 

Spain 331 

Assignment  of  horses  to  officers.     {See  Issue 

of  horses  to  officers.) 
Assignment  of  horses  to  the  various  units. 
(See  Issue  of  horses  to  various  units.) 

Australia  as  a  source  for  remounts 300 

Austrah'an  horses 278,  284,  296,  297, 3(X) 

Australian  stallions,  India 297 

Australian  type  of  horses,  India 297 

Austro-Hungarian  horses  exported  into  Ger- 
many, statistics 277 

.\venches  stud,  Switzerland 338 

Babolna  breeding  estal)lishment,  Hungary, 

218, 221 

Baerenklau  remount  depot,  Germany 275 

Bagdad  stud,  Turkey 341 

Bales  of  hay,  weight  of,  France 263 

Barbary  stallions,  number  of,  Algeria, .  260,261 

Barbary  type,  breeding  of,  Algeria 259, 260, 261 

Barley  meal,  rations: 

Algeria 262 

France 262 

Barley  ration  : 

Algeria 259,260,262,263 

France 262,263 

German  East  Asia 284 

Great  Britain 294 

.    Norway 320 

Persia 321 

Bavaria  remount  depots 271 

Beans  as  forage,  China 227 

Beans,  forage  ration  : 

Algeria .: 262 

France 262 

Beberbeck,  Prussia 281 

Becker's  (John)  private  breeding  establish- 
ments, Austria-Hungary 221 


Bedding,  Fi-ance 263 

Bedding  for  officers'  horses,  Italy 301: 

Belgian  horses : 

Germany 277 

Spain  332 

Beluchistan,  horse  breeding 297 

Bengal  type  of  horses,  India 298 

Bern  remount  depot,  Switzerland 337 

Bilak  remount  depot,  Austria-Hungary,  209,210 
Blaskovics's  (Stephen)  private  breeding  es- 
tablishment, Austria-Hungary 221 

Blidah  remount  depot  and  stud,  Algeria 257 

Boaids  for  mobilized  horses,  Denmark 231 

Bombay  horse  breeding 297 

Brabants  stallions,  Italy 306 

Bran  ration  : 

Algeria 262 

France  __, 262 

German  East  Asia 284 

Great  Britain 294 

Switzeriand 3.38 

Biunding: 

Algeria . 251 

Austria-Hungary 209,220 

Denmark ^ L..    230 

France 245,247 

Germany 276 

Great  Britain 287 

Hungary 220 

Italy 305, 309 

Norway 320 

Switzerland 337 

Tunis 251 

Brazilian  remounts 314 

Breeding  associations,  Denmark 229 

Breeding  establishments : 

Algeria 257,261 

Austria-Hungary 217,218 

Bavaria 283 

Brazil 314 

Denmark 229 

France 256,257 

German  colonies , 284 

Germany 271,281,282,283 

Great  Britain 287 

Hungary 218,219 

India 297 

Italy 305,306 

Japan 311 

Mexico  315 

Norway 319 

Persia  321 

Prussia . 281 

Russia 325,326.327 

Saxony 283 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Tunis 2.57 

Turkey 341 

Wurttemberg 283 

Breeding  farms.      (See  Breeding  establish- 
ments.) 


i 


INDEX    TO    REMOUNT    SYSTEMS. 


363 


Page. 

Breeding  of  horses: 

Algeria 2.5T-261, 269 

Argentina 313 

Australia  300 

Austria-Hungary 217-222 

Bavaria 283 

Belgium 225 

Belurlii.stan 297 

Bombay  297 

Brazil  314 

Canada 299 

Chile 314 

China 227 

Deccan 297 

Denmark 229 

France 256-202,268,269 

German  colonies 1 284 

Germany . 281,282,283 

Great  Britain 287,296-301 

Hungary 218-222 

India 296,297,298 

Italy   305,  .306 

.Japan 311 

Manchuria 227 

Manitoba 299 

Mexico 315 

Mongolia 227 

New  South  Wales 300 

New  Zealand  „_ .301 

Norway 319,320 

Persia 321 

Portugal 323 

Prussia 281,  282 

Punjab 297 

Russia 32.5,  .326, 327 

Saxony 281 

Sind,  India 297 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 338 

Tunis 257 

Turkey 341 

Victoria,  Australia 300 

Wurtteraberg 283 

Breeding  of  mules : 

Argentina 313 

irazil 314 

Chile 315 

China 228 

German  Africa 284 

India 297,298 

Mexico 315 

New  Zealand 301 

Spain 331 

Breeding  stables.     (.See  Breeding  establish- 
ments.) 

Breiholen,  remount  depot,  Wurttemberg 272 

British  colonies,  remounts 285,287,296-301 

Brood  mares : 

Algeria 261,262 

Austria-Hungary 218,219 


Page. 
Brood  mares — Continued. 

France 2(i2 

Germany 282 

Hungary 218,219 

India 297 

Italy 305, 306 

New  Zealand 301 

Prussia 282 

Bussia 326,327 

Spain 331 

Turkey 341 

Buccaneer,    celebrated    stallion,     Kis-Ber, 

Hungary 220 

Budapest  remount  purchasing  commission, 

Austria-Hungary 208 

Budgetary  effective  of  horses.     (See  Number 
of  horses,  army.) 

Burma  pony,  India 298 

Calgary,  remount  depot,  Canada 299 

Camel  corps,  India 299 

Camels,  army: 

Algeria 2.39 

India 298 

Tunis 239 

Canadian  horses  purchased  by  Great  Britain, 

statistics 29(i 

Canadian  remounts 299 

Cantiniere,  France 264 

Cape  Colony  remounts 3(K) 

Carbuncle  fever.     {See  Anthrax.) 
Cariots  used  as  forage  : 

Algeria 260, 262 

France 262 

Great  Britain 294 

Castration  followed  by  tetanus,  France 266 

Caucasus  stallions 325 

Cavalli    de     agevolezza,   (officers'    horses) 

Italy 306 

Cavalry  horses  on  mobilization.     {See  Mob- 
ilization of  horses.) 
Cavalry  horses,  supply  of.     {See  Supply  of 

horses.) 
Cavalry.     {See  Mounted  troops.) 
Cavalry  regiments,  number  of.     {See  Num- 
ber of  cavalry  regiments.) 
Census  of  horses.     (.See  Number  of  horses.) 

Chamont  stallion,  Germany 282 

Change  of  horses  by  officers,  Italy 309,310 

Chargers : 

.\ustria-Hungary 213 

Chile 315 

Germany 273, 274,  276 

Italy 308,309,310 

Cheval  de  carriere,  France 239,254,250 

Cheval  de  manege,  France 239,254,256 

Chief  farriers,  F>.ince 264 

Chifteler  stud,  Turkey 341 

Chile,  remounts 314 

Chilean  breed 314 

Chinese  mules  for  East  Indian  artillery  ___     318 
Civil  officials'  horses,  Japan 311 


364 


INDEX    TO    REMOUNT    SYSTEMS. 


Page. 

Civilians'  use  of  army  horses  : 

Austria-Hungary 215 

Denmark 232, 233, 234 

Switzerland 336 

Classification  of  horses  : 

Austria-Hungary 212,  216 

Frarrce 216,255 

Germany 273,274,275 

Italy 306,  307,  308 

Russia 328 

Switzerland 337 

Cleveland  hay,  Chile 314 

Clevelauds  : 

Argentina 313 

Chile 315 

Clovei',  forage,  China 227 

Clydesdales,  imported  irrto  Ar-gentina 313 

Clydesdales,  stallions : 

Argeutirra 313 

Italy 306 

Cobs,  statistics  of  purchase.  Great  Britain__    206 

Cold  shoeing,  Great  Britain 290,291 

Colic,  Prussia 283 

Colonies,  remounts : 

France 239,251 

Germany 277, 278, 284 

Great  Britain 285,287,296-301 

Italy 303 

Netherlands 317,  318 

Color,  airuy  horses: 

France 246, 255 

Great  Britain 286 

Italy 304 

Norway 319 

Cults,  thoroughbred,  Hungary 221 

Commutation  of  forage  : 

Algeria 250 

Austria-Hungary 214 

Germany 279 

Compensation  for  mobilized  hor-ses  : 

Austria-Hungary 216 

Denmai-k 231 

(Jornpensation  forstationed-out  horses  (with 
])iivate  keepers)  : 

Austria-Hungary 215 

Denmark 234 

Condemnation  of  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 209,210,111 

Belgium 226 

Chile 315 

Denmark —  230,234 

France 238,246,254 

Germany 273,276,280,283 

Great  Britain 287 

Italy 303,304,309,310 

Norway 320 

Prussia 283 

Russia : 327,329 

Switzerland 337 

Turkey 342 


Page. 
Conscription  of  horses  : 

.\ustria-Hungary 215 

Denmark 230 

Fiance 267 

Germany 281 

Norway 319,320 

Constantine  remoirnt  depot  and  stud,  Alge- 
ria       257 

Cor-doba  province,  militai-y  stud,  Spain 331 

Corn,  forage  ration,  France 262 

Cossack  r-emounts,  Russia 327,329 

Covering : 

Algeria 257,259,261 

Austria-Hungary 220,221 

Bavaria 283 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229 

France 2.56,257 

Gei-many 271, 281, 282, 283 

India 297 

Italy 306 

Norway 319,320 

Pr-ussia 282 

Russia 325 

Spain J 331 

Switzerland 338 

Tunis 257,259 

Turkey 341 

Wurttemherg 283 

Covering  fees: 

Algeria 259 

Arrstria-Hungary 220 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229 

Fr-ance 257 

Germany 282 

India 297 

Italy 306 

Prussia 282 

Russia 325 

Spain 331 

Switzerland 338 

Tunis 259 

Turkey 341 

Cross-country  horse,  France 256 

Crown  horses,  Russia 329 

Cyprian  mules  purchased  by  Great  Br-itain.     296 

Danish-bred  horses 229 

Danish  horses  imported  into  Germany,  sta- 
tistics      277 

Debreczin  stallion  depot,  Hungary 218 

Debts  incurred  by  officers  in  purchasing  re- 
mounts, Italy 306,308 

Deccan,  horse  breeding 297 

Decentralizatiorr  of   remount  service,  Ger- 
many       277 

Depots  for  training  remouuts.     {See  Train- 
ing school  for  horses.) 

Derkul  stud,  Russia 326 

Descriptive  book  of  horses,  France 246,247 


INDEX    TO    REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


ot>5 


Page. 
Diseases  of  horses : 

Aiistiia-Hiiiigar.v 211, '212,219 

Deimiiuk 230,  235 

Knince 245,246,266 

Gennan.v 278,283 

Oiviit  Britain 288 

Italy 305 

Prussia 283 

Switzerland 337,338 

Draft  animals,  other  than  horses,   German 

Southwest  Africa 284 

Draft  horses : 

Australia 300 

Austria-Hungary 209,216,219,220 

Belgium 225,  226 

Denmark 229, 234, 235 

France 239, 240, 246,  247, 248, 267 

Germany 271,  277,  280, 281 

Italy 303,304,305 

New  South  Wales 300 

New  Zealand 301 

Norway 320 

Persia 321 

Russia 328,329 

Spain 332 

Switzerland 339 

West  Australia 300 

Draft  mules : 

Algeria 239, 240, 246, 249 

France 239, 240, 246, 249 

German  colonies 284 

Tunis 239, 240, 246, 249 

Turkey 342 

Drohowyze  stallion  depot,  Austria 218 

Dropsy,  France 266 

Dublin,  remount  depot,  Ireland 287 

Dutch  colonies 317 

Dutch    horses    imported     into     Germany, 

statistics 277 

Duty  on  Arab  stallions,  Turkey 341 

Duty  on  horses,  mules,  asses,  and  foals : 

Austria-Hungary 209 

Denmark 229 

France 237 

Germany 277 

Great  Britain 287 

Italy 303 

Norway 320 

Switzerland 338 

Turkey 341 

East  Prussian  remounts ^ 272 

Elephant  batteries,  India 285 

<^:iite,  Switzerland 335,338,339 

Engineers'  horses : 

Belgium 225 

France 239,  240,  255 

Great  Britain 286 

Italy 303,  306 

Spain 332 


Page. 

English  stallions: 

Algeria 260 

Argentina 313 

Austria-Hungary 220 

Chile 314 

Denmark 229 

Germany  282 

India ^ 207 

Italy 306 

Russia 326 

Spain ^ 331 

English      thoroughbreds      imported      into 
Argentina 313 

Erysipelas,  France 266 

Expenditures  of  breeding  establishments  : 

Algeria 262 

Russia 327 

Expenditures,  purchase  of  horses: 

Algeria 239,240 

Austria-Hungary 209 

Denmark 229 

France 239, 240, 247, 268,  269 

Germany 271, 274 

Italy 303 

Portugal 323 

Tunis 239,  240 

Expenditures,  remount  depots,  Germany 271 

Export  duty  on  Arab  stallions,  Turkey 341 

Export  duty   on    horses.       (See    Duty   on 
horses,  mules,  and  asses.) 

Exports- of  horses,  mules,  and  asses  : 

Algeria 246 

Argentina 296,313,314 

Australia 278,284,296,300,311 

Austria-Hungary 277 

Belgium 332 

Canada 296 

China  329 

Cyprus  296 

Denmark 277 

France 268, 277, 305 

Germany 229, 277, 305, 313, 336 

Great  Britain 229,296,313,333 

Hanover 333 

Hungary 296,336 

Ireland 225,229,296,336 

Italy 296 

Manchuria 227 

Netherlands 277 

New  Zealand 301 

Persia 311 

Russia 321,327 

Spain 296,323,331 

Turkey 219,341 

United  States 268, 

277, 278, 284, 296, 305, 313, 315 

Extra  pay  for  remounts  of  officers.     (See 
Allowances  for  remounts  to  officers. ) 

Farriers : 

France  263 

Great  Britain 289,291,293 


366 


INDEX    TO    REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


Farriers'  school : 

Deuniark 

France  

Great  Britain 

Faults  of  piircuased  horses  guaranteed 
against.  {See  Guarantee  of  horse  seller 
required.) 

Fees  for  covering.     {See  Covering  fees.) 

F-es  of  farriers,  France 

Feed.     {See  Forage.) 

Field-officers'  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 21.3, 

France 237,  238, 

Italy 

Fiji,  remounts 

Fines  for  disabling  a  horse : 

France 

Italy 

Fines  for  disobeying  mobilization  orders  : 

Austria-Hungary 

Denmark 

Fines  for  violation  of  regulations  for  sta- 
tioned-out  horses,  Denmark 

Flemish  horses,  Belgium 

Fogaras,  breeding  establishment,  Hungary, 

218, 

Fontainebleau  artillery-school  horses, 
France 

Forage : 

Algeria 250,259,260, 

.\ustria-Hungary 211, 

China 

Denmark 

France 255,  262, 

German  East  Asia 

Germany 274,  275, 

Great  Britain 293, 

Italy 305, 308, 

Norway 

Persia 

Kussia 

Switzerland 

Forage  allowance : 

Algeria 250,259, 

.\ustria-Hungary 211, 

Denmark 

France 252,  255,  262, 

Germany 275,277,278, 

Great  Britain 293, 

Italy 305, 308, 

Norway 

Persia 

Kussia 

Switzerland 

Forage  commutation.  (.See  Commutation 
of  forage.) 

Forage  furnished  to-apahis,  Algeria 

Forage  storehouses,  ,\ustria-Hungary 

Forster  (Eleck),  private  breeding  establish- 
ment, Austria-Hungary 

French  horses  imported  into  Germany 

French  horses  and  mules  for  Italian  artillery 


231 

264 
291 


214 
254 
308 
3(tO 

254 
309 

215 
231 

234 
225 


262 
214 
227 
230 
263 
284 
278 
294 
310 
320 
321 
329 
338 

262 
214 
230 
263 
279 
294 
310 
320 
321 
329 
338 


250 
214 

221 

277 
305 


Page. 

French  stallions  in  Japan 311 

Frost  nails,  shoeing.  Great  Britain 292 

Funds,  remount  service : 

France 247 

Germany 271 

Fyen  remount  depot,  Denmark 229 

Galician  saddle  horses,  Austria-Hungary 222 

Gendarmerie : 

Belgium 225 

France 239,240,255 

Me.\ico 315 

Spain 331 

Generals'  horses : 

France 238,255 

Germany 279 

Italy 306,308 

Spain 332 

General  staff  officers'  horses  : 

France 255 

Italy 306 

German  "charger"  system  in  Chile 315 

German  colonies,  remounts 284 

German  horses  for  Italian  artillery 305 

German  horses  for  Swiss  army .336 

German  stallions 229 

Gidran  stallions,  Austria-Hungary 220 

Glanders : 

France 247 

Prussia 283 

Gilding  stallion  depot,  Austria 218 

Government  stallions.     {See  Stallions.) 
Government  studs.     {See  Studs.) 

Graditz  breeding  stable,  Prussia 281 

Graditz  stallions,  Germany 282 

Gratuitous  remounts.     {See  Officers'  horses, 
gratuitous.) 

Graz  stallion  depot,  .\ustria 218 

Green  fodder : 

China 227 

France 262 

Germany 275 

Great  Britain ._  294 

Persia 321 

Grooming : 

Algeria 259 

Austria-Hungary 212 

Denmark 230 

France 248,  2,'j9,  203 

GiM-many 280 

Great  Britain 293 

Norway 320 

Switzeriand  _._ 338 

Guarantee  of  horse  seller  required  : 

Denmark 235 

France 245 

Hackney  stallions  : 

Argentina 313 

India 297 

Italy 306 

New  Zealand .301 

Norway 319 

llauuver  remounts,  Germany ' "^"V 


I 


INDEX    TO   REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


36^ 


Page. 

Hanoverians  imported  into — 

Argentina 313 

Sweden 333 

Hay  ration  : 

Algeria 259,262 

Austria-Hungary 214 

Denmark 230 

France 262,263 

Germany 275,278 

Great  Britain 293,294 

Italy 305 

Norway 320 

Persia 321 

Russia 329 

Switzerland 338 

Hodmezii-Vdsarhely,  city  breeding  stables, 
Hungary 221 

Holies  hunts  serving  as  tests  for  stallions, 
Austria-Hungary 222,223 

Holies  hunts,  training  of  horses,  Austria- 
Hungary 220, 222 

Horse  boards.  (See  Remount  commissions.) 

Horse  descriptive  book,  France 246,247 

Horseshoes: 

Austria-Hungary 219 

Denmark 230 

France 265 

Germany 280 

Great  Britain 288-293,295,296 

Italy 305 

Norway 320 

Switzeriand 338 

Hungarian  horses: 

Great  Britain 296 

Japan 311 

Switzerland 336 

Turkey ..    342 

Hungarian  mares,  Turkey 341 

Hungarian  saddle  horses 222 

Hungarian  stallions : 

Japan 311 

Turkey 341 

Hunter  stallions.  New  Z'  iland 301 

Hunters  imported  into  Argentina 311 

Ihaszi  Marczalto  remount  depot,  Austria- 
Hungary  209 

Import    duty    on    horoes.     {See    Duty    on 
horses,  mules,  asses,  and  foals. ) 

Imports  of  horses,  mules,  and  asses : 

Algeria 246 

Argentina 313 

Australia ^     301 

Austria-Hungary 219 

Brazil 314 

Denmark 229 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

France 246,268 

Germany 277 

Great  Britain 296,300,331 

India 298,299,300 

Italy 305, 307 


Page. 

Imports  of  horses,  mules,  and  asses — Cont'd. 

Japan 311 

Netherlands 317 

New  South  Wales 301 

Norway 319 

Persia 321 

Portugal 323 

South  Africa 296 

Spain 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 336 

Tunis 246 

Turkey 341,. 342 

Indelta  cavalry  horses,  Sweden 333 

Indian  remounts 296 

Infantry  horses  : 

.\ustria-Hungary 217 

Belgium 225 

France 239, 240,  255 

Italy 306 

Ru.ssia 329 

Influenza,  Germany 275,  280 

Inspector!   general   an<i   inspectors   of    re- 
mount service : 

Algeria 258 

Austria-Hungary 210 

Denmark 232,234 

France 241 

Germany 274 

Great  Britain 285 

Russia 328 

Switzerland 337 

Tunis 258 

Installment  plan  of  purchase  of  horses  by 
officers,  France 252, 253 

Instruction  in  horseshoeing : 

France 263,264 

Great  Britain 291,292,295,296 

Instructions  for  the  mustering  boards,  Den- 
mark      2.32 

Irani  type  of  horses,  India 298 

Irish  horses  purchased  by  : 

Belgium 225 

..reat  Britain 296 

Netherlands 317 

Switzerland 336 

Irish  hunters,  France 256 

Irish  mules  purchased  by  Great  Britain 296 

Issue  of  horses  of  homogeneous  type  in  each 
unit: 

Algeria 249 

Austria-Hungary 211,212 

France 247 

Tunis 249 

Issue  of  horses  to  officers  : 

Austria-Hungary 211,212,213,214 

Belgium 226 

Denmark 229, 232 

France 252 

Germany 273,274 

Great  Britain 294,295 


368 


INDEX    TO    REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


Page. 
Issue  of  horses  to  officers — Continued. 

Italy 3(»>-310 

Netherlands 31^ 

Kussia 329 

Spain 332 

Switzerland 3.3.5 

Issue  of  horses  to  private   keepers.      (See 

civilians'  use  of  army  horses.) 
Issue  of  horses  to  various  units : 

Algeria 249,250,251 

Austria-Hungary-_— 210, 212 

Belgium 226 

Denmark 232 

France 244, 245, 246, 247, 248 

Germany 273,276 

Great  Britain 287 

Italy 303, 304,  305 

Netherlands 317 

Russia 327-329 

Spain 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 335,337 

Italian  colonies'  remounts 303 

Italian  mules  purchased  by  Great  Britain..     296 
Jacks : 

India 297,298 

New  Zealand 301 

Janow  stud,  Russian  Poland 326 

Java 317 

Kalmuk  horses,  Russia 325 

Karolyi,    Count    Alvis,    private    breeding 

stable,  Austria-Hungary 221 

Kattenau  remount  depot,  East  Prussia 275 

Kharkof  district  studs,  Russia 326 

Khreuovoye  government  stud,  Russia 326 

Kirghiz  horses,  Russia 325 

Kis-Ber  breeding  stable,  Hungary 218.  220 

Kladriiber  breeding  stable,  Hungary 221 

Klecza  Dolna  remount  depot,  Austria-Hun- 
gary       209 

Krlimper  horses,  Germany 280 

Kulknith  remount  depot.  Saxony 271 

Kurdish  cavalry,  Turkey 342 

Kurdish  horses,  Turkey 342 

Kvarterheste,  Norway 319 

Labod  remount  depot,  Austria-Hungary,  209, 210 

Lack  of  good  military  horses,  Brazil 314 

li'AUelik  breeding  farm,  Algeria 257 

L'Allelik  remount  anne.x,  Algeria 257 

Landholders'    horses   for  indelta  cavalry, 

Sweden 333 

Landwehr,  Switzerland 339 

Leniberg  remount  purchasing  commission, 

Austria-Hungary 208 

l<ength  of  service  of  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 209 

Belgium 225 

Chile 1 315 

Denmark 229,230 

France 238 

Germany 276 

Great  Britain 287 


Page. 
Length  of  service  of  horses — Continued. 

Italy 3(14,309 

Norway 320 

Persia 321 

Portugal 323 

Russia 327 

Spain 332 

Switzerland 335,338 

Turkey 342 

Length  of  service  of  mules  : 

France 238 

Italy 304 

Light-draft  stallions,  New  Zealand 301 

Limaresk  stud,  Russia 326 

Linseed  forage  ration  : 

France 263 

Great  Britain 294 

Lipitza  breeding  stable,  Hungary 221 

Lockjaw.     [See  Tetanus.) 

Loss   of   horses,   annual   percentage.     (See 

Yearly  requirement  of  horses.) 
LogstiJr,  apportionment  of  mobilized  horses, 

Denmark 230 

Lung  diseases  of  horses,  Denmark 230 

Lusk  remount  depot,  Ireland 287 

Lymph.     {See  Serum.) 

Malatia  stud,  Turkey 341 

Malt  forage  ration.  Great  Britain 294 

Manchuria,  horse  breeding 227 

Manchurian  horses 227 

Mangelwurzel  forage  ration,  Great  Britain.     294 

Manitoba,  horse  breeding 299 

Mares.     (See  Brood  mares.) 

Measurement  behind  saddle,  Sweden 333 

Melton  stallion,  Italy 306 

Mexico,  remounts 315 

Meziihegyes  breeding  establishments,  Hun- 
gary       218 

Milianah  branch  remount  depot,  Algeria  ._     257 

Militia  system,  Switzerland 343 

Minas  Geraes,  mule  breeding,  Brazil 314 

Miskolcz  remount  purchasing  commission, 

Austria-Hungary 208 

Mobilization  of  horses: 

Austria-Hungary 207,215,216,217 

Denmark 230,231 

France 267 

Germany 281 

Great  Britain 287 

Italy 303 

Norway 320 

Russia 327 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 339 

Molasses  as  feed  for  horses,  Switzerland  ...     338 
Moldavian   stallions    and    mares  imported 

into  Austria-Hungary 219 

Mongolia,  horse  breeding 227 

Morgans  imported  into  Argentina 313 

Mostaganem  remount  depot  and  stud,  Alge- 
ria  --.     257 


INDEX    TO    REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


369 


Page. 

Mounted  troops : 

Algeria 239,  2-tO 

Argentina 313 

Austria-Hungary 215,217 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 3U 

British  colonies 286,287 

Chile 315 

China 227 

Denmark 229 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

Egypt 287 

France 237, 239, 240 

German  colonies 284 

Germany 277, 281 

Great  Britain 287 

India . 287, 298, 299 

Italy 303,304 

Japan 311 

Malta 287 

Mexico 315 

Netherlands 317 

Northwest  provinces  of  India 298 

Norway 320 

Oudh 298 

Persia 321 

Portugal 323 

Punjab 298 

Russia 327,328 

South  Africa 285 

Spain 331,332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 335,337,338,339 

Tunis 239,240 

Turkey 341,342 

Mule  breeding.     {See  Breeding  of  mules.) 

Mules : 

Algeria 237, 249, 261 

Argentina 313 

Austria-Hungary 209 

Bombay 298 

Brazil 314 

Chile 315 

China 227,228 

Cyprus 296 

Denmark 229 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

France 237, 2.38, 246, 249 

German  colonies 284 

Germany 274, 277 

Great  Britain 286,294,296 

India 298 

Ireland 296 

Italy 296, 303, 304, 305 

Mexico 315 

Northwest  provinces  of  India 298 

Oudh 298 

Portugal 323 

Punjab 298 

Spain 296,331,333 

Switzerland 339 

23555 24 


Page. 
Mules — Continued. 

Tunis 249 

Turkey 342 

United  States  of  America 29G 

Murrain,  Prussia 283 

Mustapha  remount  annex,  Algeria 257 

Mustering  boards,  Denmark 232 

Nagy-Daad-Sari   remount    depot,    Austria- 
Hungary 2(19,210,212 

Nagy-Kaniza    remount    purchasing    com- 
mission, Austria-Hungary 208 

Nagy-Kiiriis  stallion  depot,  Hungary 218 

Nails,  horseshoeing.  Great  Britain 289, 

291,292,293,296 

Natal,  remounts 300 

Netherlands,  colonies.   (.See Dutch  colonies.) 

New  South  Wales,  remounts 300 

New  Zealand,  remounts 301 

Nonin  stallions,  Austria-Hungary 220 

Norfolk  stallions : 

Chile 315 

India 297 

Spain 331 

Novo-Alexandrovsk  stud,  Russia 326 

Number  of  animals    in    the    government 

studs,  Russia 325,326,327 

Number  of  artillery  batteries  : 

Dutch  East  Indies 317 

Persia 321 

Portugal 323 

Russia 327 

Sweden 333 

Turkey 341 

Number  of  artillery  regiments  : 

Argentina 313 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 314 

Japan 311 

Mexico  (battalions) 315 

Netherlands 317 

Spain 331 

Number  of  asses  : 

Bombay 298 

India 297,298 

New  Zealand 301 

Punjab 298 

Spain 331 

Number  of  asses  exported,  Argentina 313 

Number  of  camels  : 

India 298 

Number  of  camels,  ai-my :   • 

Algeria  and  Tunis 239 

India 299 

Number  of  cavalry  regiments : 

Argentina 313 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 314 

Dutch  East  Indies 317 

Japan 311 

Mexico 315 

Netherlands 317 


370 


INDEX   TO   REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


Page. . 

Number  of  cavalry  regiments — Continued. 

Persia  (squadrons) 321 

Portugal 323 

Russia 327 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Turkey 341, 342 

Number  of  horses : 

Algeria 237 

Argentina 313 

Australia 300 

Austria-Hungary 207 

Belgium 225 

Bombay 298 

Canada 299 

Cape  Colony 300 

Chile 314 

Denmark 229 

Fiji 300 

France 237,267 

Geiman  colonies 284 

Germany 277 

India , 298 

Italy 303 

Japan 311 

Java 317 

Manitoba 299 

Natal 300 

Netherlands 317 

New  South  Wales 300 

New  Zealand 300 

Northwest  provinces,  India 298 

Norway 320 

Ontario 299 

Oudh,  India 298 

Punjab 298 

Queensland 300 

Russia 325 

South  Australia 300 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 339 

Tasmania 300 

Turkey 341 

Victoria,  Australia 300 

West  Australia 300 

Number  of  horses,  army  : 

Algeria 239 

Argentina 313 

Austriu-Hungary 215,217 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 314 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,  .318 

Egypt 287 

France 207,  237, 239, 240,  267 

German  African  colonies 284 

German  East  Asia 284 

Germany 207, 277, 283 

Great  Britain 207, 287 


Page. 

Number  of  horses,  army — Continued. 

India 287,298 

Itely 303 

Malta , 287 

Mexico- 315 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 320 

Portugal 323 

Prussia 283 

Russia 207,327 

South  African  war,  Great  Britain 207 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 339 

Tunis 239 

Turkey 341,342 

Number  of  horses,  artillery  : 

Algeria 239,240 

Austria-Hungary 215  ■ 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 314 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229 

Dutch  East  Indies 317 

Egypt 287 

France 239, 240, 267 

Germany 277 

Great  Britiiin 287 

India 287 

Italy 303 

Malta 287 

Norway 320 

Tunis 239, 240 

Turkey 341 

Number  of  horses,  cavalry  : 

Algeria 239,  240 

Austria-Hungary 215 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 314 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229 

Dutch  East  Indies 317 

Egypt 287 

France 240, 267 

Germany 277 

Great  Britain 287 

India 287 

Italy 303 

Malta 287 

Norway 320 

Russia 327 

Switzerland 339 

Tunis 239,240 

Turkey 241 

Number  of  horses,  engineers  : 

Algeria 240 

Belgium 225 

France 240 

Italy 303,305 

Tunis 240 

Number  of  horses  exported.      {See  Exports 
of  horses,  mules,  and  asses.) 


INDEX    TO   REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


371 


Page. 
Number  of  horses,  gendarmerie : 

Belgium 225 

France 240 

Number  of  horses  imported.     {See  Imports 
of  hoi-ses,  mules,  and  asses.) 

Number  of  horses,  infantry  : 

Austria-Hungary 215 

Belgium 225 

Number  of  horses,  mobilization.     (See  Mo- 
bilization of  horses. ) 

Number  of  horses,  mounted  infantry: 

Egypt 287 

Great  Britain 287 

India 287 

Malta 287 

Number  of  horses  purchased  : 

Algeria 239, 240 

Austria-Hungary 209 

Belgium 225 

Denmark 229 

France 238, 239, 240 

Great  Britain 287, 296, 298, 313, 314 

India 298 

Italy 303 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 319,320 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 336 

Tunis 239,240 

Turkey 342 

Number  of  horses,  train.     {See  Ti-ain  horses.) 

Number  of  horses,  transport.     {See  Train  horsee.) 

Number  of  mules : 

Algeria 237 

Argentina 313 

Bombay 298 

France 237 

India 298 

Italy 303 

Northwest  provinces  and  Oudh,  India  _     298 

Punjab 298 

Spain 331 

Switzerland 339 

Number  of  mules,  army  : 

Argentina 313 

Chile 315 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

France 238,239,240 

German  colonies 284 

Germany 277 

Great  Britain 296 

India 298 

Italy 303 

Portugal 323 

Spain 331 

Number  of  mules   exported.     {See  Exports 
of  horses,  mules,  and  asses. ) 

Numt>er  of  mules  purchased.  Great  Britain.     296 

Number  of  pack  horses,  army.     {See  Pack 
animals.) 

Number  of  pure  breeds,  Argentina 313 


Page. 
Number  of  stallions.     {See  Stallions. ) 
Oat  ration : 

.\Igeria 259, 262 

Austria-Hungary 214 

Denmark 230 

France 259,262 

Germany 275, 278 

Great  Britain 293,294 

Italy 305 

Norway 320 

Russia 329 

Switzerland 338 

Oatmeal,  forage  ration,  Great  Britain 294 

Oats,  kinds  of,  France 263 

Officers'  extra  pay  for  purchase  of  horses. 
(See  Allowances  for  remounts  to  officers.) 
Officere'  horses : 

Algeria 249 

Austria-Hungary 212,  213, 214, 215 

Belgium 226 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229, 230,  232 

France 237, 

238, 239, 240, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255 

Germany 273,274 

Great  Britain 294,295 

Italy .30r>-310 

Japan 311 

Netherlands 315 

Norway 320 

Portugal 323 

Kussia 329 

Spain 331 

Switzerland 335, 337 

Tunis 249 

Officers'  horses  condemned : 

France 254 

Italy 309, 310 

Officers'  horses,  forage  ration,  Germany.  278,  279 
Officers'  horses,  gratuitous : 

Austria-Hungary 212,213,214 

France 252 

Germany 273 

Great  Britain 294 

Russia 329 

Officers'  horses,  specifications : 

Algeria 249 

Austria-Hungary 211 

France 244,249,253 

Italy 307,308 

Portugal 323 

Tunis 249 

Oldenburgs  imported  into  Argentina 313 

Oi"an  remount  branch  depot  and  stud,  Al- 
geria      257 

Orlof-Rostopchin  breed 326 

Orlofs  imported  into  Argentina 313 

Oxen,  breeding  fai'ms,  Algeria 201 

Oxen  of  German  African  colonial  troops 284 

Pack  animals : 

Austria-Hungary 207, 209, 216 

Belgium 225 


372 


INDEX    TO    REMOUNT    SYSTEMS. 


Page. 
Pack  auiuials — Continued. 

Denmark : 22P 

Fi-ance 246 

Germanj- 277 

Great  Britain 286 

India 286 

Italy 305 

Japan 311 

New  Zealand 301 

Norway 320 

Switzerland 339 

Turkey 342 

Pack  horses.     (See  Pack  animals.) 
Pack  mules.     (See  Pack  animals.) 

Parana  projected  government  stud,  Brazili  314 

Paris  remount  depot,  France 254,256 

Parsnips  for  forage,  France 262 

Pay  of  farrier,  France 264 

Peace  effective  of  horses.     (See  Number  of 
horses,  army.) 

Pease  used  as  forage,  France 262 

Pedigree   statement   for  purchased   horses 
required : 

Algeria 269 

France 268 

Germany 273 

Percentage  of  annual  loss  of  horses.     (See 

Yearly  requirements  of  horses.) 
Percheron  stallions : 

Argentina 313 

Spain 331 

Percherons  imported  into  Argentina 313 

Persamo  breeding  establishment,  Italy 305 

Persian  stallions  in  Japan 311 

Persian  type  of  horses 321 

Personnel  of  remount  service  : 

France 241, 257 

Germany 272, 275 

Piber  breeding  stable,  Austria 218,  221 

Pisek  stallion  depot,  Au.stria 218 

Poltava  horse  depot,  Russia 32G 

Pony  stallions,  India 297 

Premiums  for  horse-raisiug : 

Algeria 269 

France 268 

Preussisch-Mark  remount  depot,  East  Prus- 
sia    274 

Price,  brood  mares ; 

Algeria 239 

France 268 

Price,  horses : 

Algeria 239,240,250,251 

Argentina 313, 314 

Australia 300 

Austria-Hungary 209,  212,  213 

Belgium 225 

Canada . 299 

Chile .' 315 

China 227 

Denmark 229, 2.34 

East  Prussia 272 


Page. 
Price,  horses — Con t i nu ed . 

France  .„  238, 239,  240, 250,  251, 256,  268,  269 

Gei-many 271, 282 

Great  Britain 286 

Hanover,  Germany 272 

Italy 303,  307,  308 

Japan 311 

Netherlands 317 

New  South  Wales 300 

New  Zealand 301 

Norway 319,320 

Portugal 323 

Russia 327,328,329 

Spain 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 337 

Tunis 239,240,250,251 

West  Austraha 300 

Price,  Irish  hunters,  France 256 

Price,  mules : 

Algeria 246,269 

France 246,269 

Italy 303 

Spain 331 

Price,  stallions: 

Algeria 239,  2.57 

Germany 282 

Hungary 220 

Price,  stallions  raised  at  breeding  establish- 
ments, Hungary 220 

Price,  thoroughbred  colts,  Hungary 221 

Private  property,  soldiera"  mounts,  Switzer- 
land      335 

Private  stallions,  approved,  Russia 325 

Prussian  breeding  establishments 281,282 

Prussian  remount  depots 271,272 

Punjab  horse-breeding 297, 298 

Punjab  type  of  horses 298 

Purchase  of  horses : 

Algeria 238, 239, 240, 249, 250,  251 

Australia 285 

Austria-Hungary 207,208,209,210,211 

Belgium 225,226 

Chile 315 

China 227 

Denmark 229, 231, 232, 234, 235 

Egyi.t 285 

France 238-251 

German  colonies 284 

Germany 271 ,  272, 273, 276, 282, 284 

Great  Britain 285, 

286, 287, 296, 298, 299, 313, 319 

India 285,298,299 

Italy 303-308,313,314 

Japan 311 

Me-xico 315 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 319,320 

Portugal 323 

Russia 327-329 

South  Africa 285,296 


I 


INDEX    TO   REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


373 


Page. 
Purchase  of  horses — Continued. 

Spain 332 

Swollen -—    333 

Switzerlanil 335,  .336, 3.37 

Tunis 238, 239, 2-10, 249, 250 

Turkey 341,342 

Purchase  of  horses  from  the  Government  by 

officers.     {See  Officers'  horses.) 
Purchase  of  horses  in  the  niarliet  by  officers, 

France 252 

Purchase  of  horses  for  East  Asiatic  expedi- 
tionary forces,  Germany 277,278,284 

Purchase  of  horses  for  South  Africa 285,29(5 

Purchase  of  horses,  officers'  extra  pay  for. 
{See  Allowances  for  remounts  to  officers.) 
Purchase  commissions.    (See  Kemountcom- 
missions.) 

Purchasing  season,  Germany 272 

Quality  of  horses  and  mules  : 

Algeria 249, 250 

Argentina 313 

Australia 300 

Austria-Hungary 210,211 

Belgium 225, 226 

Brazil 314 

Canada 299 

Chile 314, 315 

China 227 

Denmark 229, 232, 234, 235 

East  Prussia 272 

France 244,245,246,247,248,249 

Germany 272,273,275,282 

Great  Britain 286 

India 297,298 

Italy 304, 305, 30G,  307, 308 

Japan 311 

Java 317 

New  Zealand 301 

Norway 319,320 

Persia 321 

Prussia 272, 282 

Kussia 325 

Spain - 331,332 

Sumatra 318 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 339 

Tunis 249,250 

Turkey .341,. 342 

Queensland,  remounts 300 

Radautz  breeding  establishment,  .\ustria-.     221 
Ratio  of  native  stock  to  crossed  breeds,  .Ar- 
gentina      313 

Receipts    and    expenditures,    government 

studs,  Russia 327 

Receipts,  remount  depots,  Germany 271 

Recruits'  payment  of  horses,  Switzerland  335, 3.37 
Refund  of  money  to  soldiers,  Switzerland-.     335 

Registers,  remount  service,  France 246,  247 

Regulations  for  the  stationing-out  of  army 

horses  with  private  keepers,  Denmark 233 

Remount  annexes : 

France 241, 248 

Germany 272 


Pajre. 
Remount  boards.    (See  Remount  commis- 
sions.) 
Remount  commissions : 

Algeria 257,  258,  259 

Austria-Hungary 207,  208, 2(19, 210,  21 1 

Belgium 226 

Chile 315 

Denmark 231,232,233 

France 242, 257, 258,  259 

Germany 271,272,273,274 

Great  Britain 285,314 

India; 298,  299 

Italy 304,  ,305, 307, 314 

Japan 311 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 319 

Portugal 323 

Russia 327-329 

Spain 331,332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 33.5-338 

Tunis 2.57,258,2.59 

Remount  companies : 

Algeria  and  Tunis 241,243,258 

France 241, 243, 258 

Remount  depots : 

Algeria 249,  257 

Au.stria-Hungary 209,210,211,212 

Bavaria 271 

Belgium 226 

Canada 299 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

East  Prussia 272,274,275 

France 241, 242 

Germany 271,  272,  274,  275 

Great  Britain 287,299 

Italy 304 

Japan 3n 

Java 318 

Netherlands 317 

Prussia 271,  272, 274,  275 

Russia 325,326,328,329 

Saxony 271 

Spain 331,3.32 

Switzerland 337 

Tunis 249,  257 

Turkey 342 

Wurttemberg 271, 272 

Remount  districts  of  France 241 

Remount  establishments,  director  of,  Alge- 
ria      257 

Remount  fund  of  spahis,  Algeria 250 

Remount  markets,  Germany 272,273 

Remount  purchasing  commission.    (See  Re- 
mount commissions.) 
Remount  service  : 

Algeria 249-252 

Austria-Hungary 207,218 

Belgium 226 

Chile 315 

Denmark 2.30-234 


374 


INDEX   TO   REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


Page. 
Kemount  service — Continued. 

Dutch  East  Indies 317 

France 241-248 

German  colonies 284 

Germany 271-276,281-284 

Great  Britain 28.5-287,314 

India 296,298,299 

Italy 304-310, 314 

Japan 311 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 319, 320 

Portugal 323 

Russia 327-329 

Spain 3.31,332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 335-338 

Tunis 249-252 

Turkey 341, 342 

Remount  service,  inspectors  general  and  in- 
spectors.   (See  Inspectors  general  and  in- 
spectors of  remount  service.) 
Remount  service,  personnel.     (See  Person- 
nel of  remount  service.) 
Remount  service,  funds.      (See  Funds,  re- 
mount service.) 
Remount  stations.     (See  Remount  depots.) 
Remount  training  schools.     (See  Training 

schools  for  horses. ) 
Rental  of  private  horses  by  troops,  Switzer- 
land      336 

Requisition.     (See  Mobilization  of  horses.) 

Reserve  officers'  horses,  France 252 

Riding  exercises  at  Holies  bunts,  Austria- 
Hungary 220,222,223 

Riding-hall  horses,  France 2.56 

Riding-school  horses,  Denmark 229 

Riding  schools  : 

Austria-Hungary 222 

Denmark 229, 231 

France 256 

Germany 280 

Rice  as  forage,  China 227 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  projected  government 

stud,  Brazil 314 

Roadster  stallions,  India 297 

Russian  mares,  Turkey 341 

Russian  stallions,  Turkey 341 

Rye,  forage  ration,  France 262 

Rzeszow  remount  purchasing  commission, 

Austria-Hungary 208 

St.  Cyr,  riding-school  horses,  France 256 

Sale  of  government  horses  : 

Austria-Hungary 219,220 

France 246,  247 

Germany 273, 277 

Italy 307 

Switzerland  .._. 336,337 

Sale  of  horses  condemned  : 

France 246,247 

Germany 273,277 

Italy 307 

Switzerland 337 


Page. 

Saumur,  farriers'  school,  France 264 

Saumur,  training  school  for  horses,  France.    242 
Saumur  war-school  horses,  France.  242,254,256 

Saxony,  breeding  establishments 283 

Saxony,  remount  depots 271 

Sepsi-Szent-Gycirgy,  stallion  depot,  Hungary, 

218,221 
Serum  : 

Denmark. 230 

France 266 

Germany 280 

Great  Britain 288 

Italy 30.5 

Service  of  horses,  langth  of.     (See  Length  of 

service  of  horses. ) 
Setif,  remount  branch  depot  and  stud,  Al- 
geria      257 

Sex  of  army  horses : 

Algeria 246, 249 

Denmark 229,234 

France 244,249 

Germany 273 

Great  Britain 286 

Italy 304,305 

Norway . 319 

Russia 328 

Switzerland 337 

Tunis 249 

Shires,  imported  into  Argentina 313 

Shoeing: 

Austria-Hungary 212,219 

Denmark 230 

France 264,265 

Germany 275,279,280 

Great  Britain 288-293,295,296 

Italy 305,309 

Norway 320 

Switzerlami 338 

Shoeing  inspection,  Great  Britain 289 

Shoeing    instruction    for    soldiers,     Great 

Britain 291,292,295,296 

Shoeing  school.     (See  Farriers'  school.) 

Silladar  regiments,  India 285 

Sind,  India,  horse  breeding 297 

Size  of  hoi-ses  and  mules : 

Algeria 249 

Austria-Hungary 208,209,216 

Belgium 225 

Brazil 314 

China 227 

Denmark 232 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

France 244,  249 

Germany 272, 273 

Great  Britain 286 

India 298 

Italy 304,307,308 

Japan 311 

Java 317 

Manchuria 227 

Mongolia 227 

Netherlands 317 


INDEX   TO   REMOUNT    SYSTEMS. 


375 


Page. 
Size  of  borses  and  mules — Continued. 

Norway 319 

Portugal — 323 

Russia - 328 

Spain 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 337 

Tunis 249 

Skassa,  remount  depot,  Sa.\ony 271 

South  Australia,  remounts 300 

Spabis,  borses,  Algeria 250 

Spabis,  remount  funds,  Algeria 2.50 

Spanisb  borses,  Austria-Hungary 221 

Spauisb  mules  purchased  by  Great  Britain.     296 
Specifications : 

Algeria 249 

Austria-Hungary 208,209,216 

Belgium 225 

Denmark 229, 232 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

France 243,244,249 

Germany 272, 273 

Great  Britain 286 

Italy 304,305,307,308 

Netherlands 317 

Portugal 323 

Russia 328 

Spain 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 336, 337 

Tunis 249 

Turkey 312 

Specificatious,  officers'  borses.    {See  Officers' 
borses,  specifications.) 

Stadl,  stallion  depot,  Austria 218 

Stallion  depots,  stallion  stations,  etc.: 

Algeria 257, 259 

Austria-Hungary 218 

Bavaria 283 

Denmark 229 

France 256 

Germany 271,281,282,283 

Hungary  . 218 

India 297 

Italy 305,306 

Prussia 281,  282 

Russia 325,326,327 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 338 

Tunis 257,259 

Turkey 341 

Wurttemberg 283 

Stallion  fees.     (See  Covering  fees.) 
Stallion  stations.     {See  Stallion  depots,  stal- 
lion stations,  etc.) 
Stallions: 

Algeria 257,259,260 

Argentina 313 

Austria-Hungary 207,220,221 

Bavaria 283 


Stall  ion.s — Continued. 

Belgium 225 

Chile 315 

Denmark 229 

East  Prussia 282 

France 257,260 

Germany 271,281,282,283 

Great  Britain 297 

Hungary 207,220,221 

India 297,298 

Italy 305, 306 

Japan 311 

New  Zealand 301 

Norway 319,320 

Prussia 281, 282 

Russia 325-327 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 338 

Tunis 257,259,260 

Turkey 341 

Wurttemberg 283 

Stallions,  subsidized,  Sweden 333 

Stallions,  various  breeds: 

American 311,313 

Anglo-Hispano-Arab 331 

Anglo-Norman 313,315,331 

Arab 259, 

260,  261,  282,  297,  306, 313,  .326, 331, 341 

Arab-Barbary 259,260,261 

Australian 297 

Barbary 2.59,260,261 

Brabant  306 

Cleveland 313 

Clydesdales 306,313 

East-Prussian 282 

English 229, 

260, 282, 297, 306, 313, 325, 326, 331, 333 

French 311 

German 229,281,282 

Gidran 220 

Hackney 297,  .301, 306, 319 

Hungarian 220,221,311,341 

Hunters 301 

Nonin 220 

Norfolk 297,315,331 

Norwegian 319 

Oldenburg 313 

Orlof ^ 313,326 

Percheron   313,331 

Persian 311,321 

Pony 297,301 

Roadster 297 

Russian 325-327,341 

Shire 313 

Suffolk  Punch 313 

Syrian 221 

Teutonic 282 

Trakehnen —  282,313 

Trotter 301 

Turkish 219 


376 


INDEX    TO   REMOUNT    SYSTEMS. 


Page. 

Stamheste,  Norway 319 

Stationing-out  of  horses  with  private 
keepers.  {See  Civilians'  use  of  army 
horses.) 

Statistics  of  exports  of  horses.  {See  Exports 
of  horses,  mules,  and  asses.) 

Statistics  of  horses.    {See  Number  of  horses. ) 

Statistics  of  purchase.  {See  Number  of 
horses  purchased. ) 

Steppe  horses,  Russia .SSo 

Storehouses,  forage,  Austria-Hungary 214 

Straw  ration: 

Algeria 262 

Austria-Hungary 21i 

Denmark 230 

France 202, 20.3 

German  colonies 28-t 

Germany 275,  278 

Great  Britain 293,201 

Italy  305 

Norway 320 

Persia 321 

Russia 329 

Switzerland 338 

Streletz  stud,  Russia 326 

Studbook : 

Algeria 259 

Canada 299 

France 259 

•      Spain 331 

Studs  : 

.\lgeria 257,  201 

Austria-Hungary 217,218 

Bavaria 283 

Brazil  314 

Denmark 229 

France 256, 257 

German  colonies 284 

Germany   271,281,282,283 

Great  Britain 287 

Hungary  218,219 

India 297 

Italy   305,306 

.Tapan   311 

Mexico 315 

Persia 321 

Pnissia 281 

Russia 325-327 

Saxony 283 

Spain 331 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 338 

Tunis 257 

Turkey . 341 

Wurttemberg 283 

StuhlWeissenburg  stallion  depot,  Hungary-     218 

Subaltern  officers'  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 212 

France 253 

Italy  308,309 

Subsidized  stallions,  Sweden 333 

Suffolk  Punch  stallions,  Argentina 313 


Page. 

Suippes  depot  for  young  horses 242, 245, 259 

Suippes  remount  annex,  Fi-ance 242, 254 

Sumatra  horses 318 

Superior  mustering  board,  Denmark 232 

Supply  of  horses: 

Algeria 249 

Argentina ' 313 

.\ustria-Hungary 207-216 

Belgium 225 

Brazil  314 

Chile 315 

China 227 

Denmark 229, 230, 234 

Dutch  East  Indies 317,318 

France 243, 246, 249, 267, 268 

German  colonies 284 

Germany  271-276,281 

Great  Britain 285, 

286,287,298,299,300,301 

India 298,299 

Italy  303-306,308,309 

Japan 311 

Mexico  315 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 1 319, 320 

Persia  321 

Portugal 323 

Russia 325,327,328,329 

Spain 331,. 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 335,330,337,339 

Tunis 249 

Turkey 341,342 

Supply  of  mobilization  horses.    {See  Mobili- 
zation of  horses.) 
Supply  of  mules: 

Algeria 249 

Argentina 313 

Austria-Hungary 209 

Dutch  East  Indies 318 

France 249 

German  colonies 284 

India 298 

Spain 331 

Switzeriand 339 

Tunis 249 

Syrian-Arab  type  of  horses,  British  colonies.     285 
Syrian  stallions  and  mares,  Austria-Hun- 
gary       221 

Szegedin  remount  purchasing  commission, 

Austria-Hungary 208 

Table  of  army  remounts,  France 239,  240 

Tasmania,  remounts 300 

Tetanus,  France 266 

Teutonic  breed  of  horses,  Germany 282 

Thoroughbreds  for  officers,  France 244,255 

Thoroughbreds  purchased,  Italy 304 

Thun  horse  regie,  Switzerlaml 335 

Tiaret,  breeding  farms,  .Mgeria 257 

Tokyo  remount  depot,  Japan 311 

Tomsk  depots,  Russia 325 

Tools  for  horseshoeing.  Great  Britain...  291,293 


INDEX   TO   REMOUNT   SYSTEMS. 


377 


Page. 
Train  lidisfs  and  mules: 

Algeria 240 

Austria-Hungary 215,217 

Belgium 22G 

Denmark 229, 230 

Egypt 287 

France 210,267 

Germany :-8,2S0 

Great  Britain 287 

India 287 

Italy 304 

Japan 311 

Malta 287 

Tunis 240 

Turkey 341 

Training  of  farriers: 

Denmark 231 

France 2(53, 264 

Great  Britain 291 

Training  of  horses: 

Austria-Hungary 220, 222, 223 

Denmark 230 

France 241,242 

Germany 273,276,280 

Great  Britain 287 

Italy 304 

Korway 3'?9 

Russia 321 

Switzeriand 337,338,339 

Training  schools  for  horses: 

Austria-Hungary 222 

France '    242 

Norway 320 

Russia 329 

Trakehnen  breeding  stable,  Prussia 281,282 

Trakehnen  horses,  Germany 282 

Trakehnen  horses  imported  into  Argentina    313 
Transport  horses.     (See  Train  hoi'ses.) 
Treatment  of  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 212 

Denmark 230 

France 266 

Germany^ 2>i3 

Great  Britain 287,288 

Italy 305 

Norway 320 

Prussia 'AsZ 

Troop  horses  used  at  schools,  France 256 

Trotter  stallions .301 

Tunis  remount  depot  and  stud 257 

Tunis  remounts 249 

Turki  type  of  horses,  India 298 

Turkish  stallions  and  mares  imported  into 

Austria-Hungary 219 

United  States  horses  exported 268, 

277, 278, 284, 296, 305, 315 
Unserviceable  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 211,215,216 

Denmark 231, 234 

France 249,  250,  251 

Germany 273, 276, 277, 283 


Unserviceable  horses — Continued. 

Italy 303,  304,  310 

Prussia 283 

Russia 329 

Switzerlanil 339 

Vaccination : 

Austria-Hungary 212 

Denmark 230 

France 266 

Germany 280 

Great  Britain 287,288 

Italy 305 

Norway 320 

Vaccine.     (See  Serum.) 
Vaccine  institute  at  Aldershot,  Great  Brit- 
ain     288 

Valuation  boards  for  mobilized  horses : 

Austria-Hungary 216,  217 

Denmark 231 

Germany 281 

Versailles  artillerj'  school  horses,  France 256 

Veterinary  medical  report  of  the  Prussian 

army 283 

Veterinary  service : 

Germany 283 

Great  Britain 288,289,290,295,296 

Prussia 283 

Veterinary  school,  Great  Britain 291 

Victoria,  remounts 300 

Virus.     (See  Vaccination.) 

War  effective  of  horses.     {See  Mobilization 

of  horses.) 
Water  ration  : 

Algeria 262 

France 262 

Weight  of  horses : 

Denmark 229 

Germany 273 

Great  Britain 286 

Italy 304 

West  Mongolian  horses : 227 

Wheat  as  forage,  France 262 

AVild  horses : 

Argentina 313 

Russia 325 

Winter  shoeing,  Great  Britain 292 

Woolwich  remount  depot.  Great  Britain 287 

Wurttemberg  breeding  establishments 283 

Wurttemberg  remount  depot 271,272 

Wurttemberg   stallion   depots  and   stallion 

stations 283 

Yearly  I'equirements  of  horses : 

Algeria 239,  240 

Austria-Hungary 209,210 

Belgium 225 

Chile 315 

Denmark 230 

Dutch  East  Indies 317, 318 

Egypt 287 

France 238,239,240 

Germanv 273, 276 


378 


INDEX    TO   REMOUNT    SYSTEMS 


Page. 
Yearly  requirements  of  horses — Continued. 

Great  Britain 287,296 

India 298 

Italy 303, 309 

Netherlands 317 

Norway 319,320 

Russia 327 

South  African  campaign 296 


Page. 
Yearly  requirements  of  horses — Continued. 

Spain 332 

Sweden 333 

Switzerland 336, 338 

Tunis 239,240 

Turkey 342 

Yelizavetgrad  horse  depot,  Russia 326 

Yesso  horses,  Japan 311 


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